Glossary of Terms and Acronyms
This glossary was created within the scope of the R4JUSTproject, comprising relevant words and terms regarding Islamist, far-right, and far-left terrorism, radicalisation, and violent extremism. All the terms were retrieved from up-to-date academic resources and reports developed by experts and competent organisations in the Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism (P/CVE) field. This glossary also includes terms often used within Islam with the goal of facilitating the comprehension of certain expressions in the Islamic culture which can be used by extremists. Nonetheless, these terms are not exclusively used by Islamists, as such, not being necessarily indicators of extremist beliefs and having to be adequately contextualised to the specific situation.
A
ACAB – “The acronym ACAB stands for "All Cops Are Bastards" and is a slogan of long standing in the skinhead subculture. Because non-racist skinheads may use this acronym as well as racist skinheads, it should be carefully judged in the context in which it appears.” [1]
Advanced White Society – “Small white supremacist group formed by a defector from the neo-Nazi National Socialist Movement. It is active primarily in the Mid-Atlantic region and in Ohio.” [1]
AKIA – “Ku Klux Klan shorthand for ‘A Klansman I Am’.” [1]
Al-Akhirah – “‘‘The last, the final’: The afterlife. Contrasted with dunya’.” [2]
Al-Amr bi-l-Mar’uf wa-l-Nahy ‘an al-Munkar – “’Commanding good and forbidding evil’: A religious term Islamist extremists often use to explain or justify their attempts to enforce their moral code on others.” [2]
Al-Dawlah al-Islamiyah – “‘Islamic State’: A state governed according to Shari’ah law. Several states have called themselves Islamic, including Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran. Whilst states that call themselves Islamic may also have man-made laws, Islamists believe that no man-made law should be prevalent, and that that it is prohibited to rule a country by any other system than Shari’a. The most famous application of this system has been by ISIS – which has called itself ad-Dawlah al- Islāmiyah fī ‘l-ʿIrāq wa-sh-Shām – the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham (Syria).” [2]
Al-jihad al-Akbar – “‘The greater struggle’: In Islamic terms the spiritual struggle to live a good and spiritually pure life. Many Islamist extremists emphasise the jihad al-Asghar instead.” [2]
Al-jihad al-Asghar – “‘The lesser struggle’: In Islamic terms an armed struggle against evil and injustice.” [2]
Al-Wala’a wal-Bara’ – “The principle of loyalty to God, the religion of Islam, and to its followers, and the rejection of other religions and non-Muslims. A key concept for many conservative Islamic groups.” [2]
Alabama Aryan Brotherhood – “One of many racist prison gangs that have adopted the Aryan Brotherhood name. It is an independent gang and has no connection to the "original" Aryan Brotherhood present in the California and federal prison systems.” [1]
Alt-left – “Researchers who study extremist groups in the United States say there is no such thing as the ‘alt-left’. Mark Pitcavage, an analyst at the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), said the word had been made up to create a false equivalence between the far right and ‘anything vaguely left-seeming that they didn’t like’. (Although) some centrist liberals have taken to using this term, (…) ‘it did not arise organically, and it refers to no actual group or movement or network’.” [3]
Alt-light – Movement that “comprises members of the far right who once fell under the ‘alt-right’ umbrella but have since split from the group because, by and large, racism and anti-Semitism are not central to its far-right nationalist views”. In sum, “the alt-light is the alt-right without the racist overtones, but it is (sometimes) hard to differentiate.” [3]
Alt-right – “Racist, far-right movement based on an ideology of white nationalism and anti-Semitism. Many news organisations do not use the term, preferring terms like ‘white nationalism’ and ‘far right’. The movement’s self-professed goal is the creation of a white state and the destruction of ‘leftism’, which it calls ‘an ideology of death’. Richard B. Spencer, a leader in the movement, has described the movement as ‘identity politics for white people’. It is also anti-immigrant, anti-feminist and opposed to homosexuality and gay and transgender rights. It is highly decentralised but has a wide online presence, where its ideology is spread via racist or sexist memes with a satirical edge. It believes that higher education is ‘only appropriate for a cognitive elite’ and that most citizens should be educated in trade schools or apprenticeships.” [3]
American Front – “Longstanding racist skinhead group. In recent years, most of its members have been from California and Florida.” [1]
Anti-Racist is a Code Word for Anti-White – "’Anti-Racist is a Code Word for Anti-White’ is a racist slogan that became popular among white supremacists in the mid-2000s. It represents an attempt to create a rebuttal to accusations of racism.” [1]
Anti-Semitism – “Discrimination, hostility, persecution, and prejudice targeting Jews.” [4]
Antifa – “Contraction of the word ‘anti-fascist’. It was coined in Germany in the 1960s and 1970s by a network of groups that spread across Europe to confront right-wing extremists. (…) A similar movement was seen in the 1980s in the United States and has re-emerged recently as the ‘alt-right’ has risen to prominence. For some so-called antifa members, the goal is to physically confront white supremacists, (in order to) ‘get at them, to assault them and engage in street fighting’ (like) ‘an old left-wing extremist movement’.” [3]
Apostasy – “In an Islamic context, to purposefully cease to be a Muslim. The term apostate is used by Islamist extremists to label Muslim individuals, groups or nations that have, in their eyes, committed acts that go against their interpretation of Sharia law, so they may class as an apostate someone who considers themselves to be a good Muslim.” [2]
Aqidah – “‘Creed’: The core beliefs of the Islamic faith.” [2]
Aryan Brotherhood – “Oldest and most notorious racist prison gang in the United States. Its most common symbol is a shamrock, often in combination with a swastika.” [1]
Aryan Brotherhood of Texas – “One of the largest and most violent white supremacist prison gangs in the United States (and uses and hand sign symbol) consisting of a raised index finger and raised ring and little fingers, signifying the numbers 1 and 2. Substituting letters for numbers 1 and 2 stands for A and B, or Aryan Brotherhood. (This prison gang is) independent from and has no relationship to the "original" Aryan Brotherhood present in the California and federal prison systems.” [1]
Aryan Circle – “Second-largest white supremacist prison gang in Texas and one of the largest such gangs in the United States. Its most common tattoo, known as a "shield" or "patch," consists of a square oriented to form a diamond shape. Inside the diamond is typically a swastika and the initials AC; it is also common to include SS lightning bolts. (…) Its primary hand sign consists of holding up the thumb and the middle, ring, and little fingers of one hand, signifying the numbers 1 and 3 (which stand for AC). One can also hold up the little finger and the middle and index fingers, plus the thumb.” [1]
Aryan Cowboy Brotherhood – “Small white supremacist prison/street gang based primarily in Minnesota and Kentucky. Its main symbol consists of a helmeted and winged skull with the initials ACB.” [1]
Aryan Knights – “White supremacist prison gang based primarily in Idaho. They often use the initials AK to identify themselves with tattoos or writing.” [1]
Aryan Nations – “American neo-Nazi group with a long history of criminal activity. Its logo consists of a Wolfsangel symbol in which the vertical line is replaced by a sword. The largest white supremacist prison gang in Tennessee is Aryan Nations (a different group than the neo-Nazi group of the same name), (whose) gang members use a hand sign they sometimes refer to as "bolts up" or "bolts to the sky," consisting of forming the hand into a pistol shape and pointing it upwards or outwards. The prison gang symbol primary symbol or "shield," is a tattoo featuring a rounded Celtic Cross, with different symbols in each of the quadrants of the cross.” [1]
Aryan Renaissance Society – “Small, but long-lived white supremacist group that has resembled both a racist skinhead group and a prison clique at times. It has had members from a variety of places, but many came from Texas and New Jersey. Its logo is a phoenix image superimposed with a lightning bolt and a runic symbol.” [1]
Aryan Terror Brigade – “Racist skinhead group with members in the United States and Europe. The logo of the group is in the form of a Waffen SS divisional insignia outline, with a man's head and a gun, a wreath, and the initials ATB inside the outline. The shield has black, white, and red stripes (the colours of the Nazi flag).” [1]
Aryan Warriors – “Longstanding racist prison gang based in the Nevada prison system. Members have created a variety of tattoos, but many of them consist of the gang's name or initials, or have some sort of Viking-related imagery, such as horned helmets or axes.” [1]
Atlantic City Skins – “New Jersey-based racist skinhead group. Their logo consists of a rounded Celtic Cross on top of a row of skulls, which may have the initials ACS on them.” [1]
AYAK – “Ku Klux Klan shorthand for ‘Are You A Klansman?’.” [1]
Advanced White Society – “Small white supremacist group formed by a defector from the neo-Nazi National Socialist Movement. It is active primarily in the Mid-Atlantic region and in Ohio.” [1]
AKIA – “Ku Klux Klan shorthand for ‘A Klansman I Am’.” [1]
Al-Akhirah – “‘‘The last, the final’: The afterlife. Contrasted with dunya’.” [2]
Al-Amr bi-l-Mar’uf wa-l-Nahy ‘an al-Munkar – “’Commanding good and forbidding evil’: A religious term Islamist extremists often use to explain or justify their attempts to enforce their moral code on others.” [2]
Al-Dawlah al-Islamiyah – “‘Islamic State’: A state governed according to Shari’ah law. Several states have called themselves Islamic, including Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran. Whilst states that call themselves Islamic may also have man-made laws, Islamists believe that no man-made law should be prevalent, and that that it is prohibited to rule a country by any other system than Shari’a. The most famous application of this system has been by ISIS – which has called itself ad-Dawlah al- Islāmiyah fī ‘l-ʿIrāq wa-sh-Shām – the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham (Syria).” [2]
Al-jihad al-Akbar – “‘The greater struggle’: In Islamic terms the spiritual struggle to live a good and spiritually pure life. Many Islamist extremists emphasise the jihad al-Asghar instead.” [2]
Al-jihad al-Asghar – “‘The lesser struggle’: In Islamic terms an armed struggle against evil and injustice.” [2]
Al-Wala’a wal-Bara’ – “The principle of loyalty to God, the religion of Islam, and to its followers, and the rejection of other religions and non-Muslims. A key concept for many conservative Islamic groups.” [2]
Alabama Aryan Brotherhood – “One of many racist prison gangs that have adopted the Aryan Brotherhood name. It is an independent gang and has no connection to the "original" Aryan Brotherhood present in the California and federal prison systems.” [1]
Alt-left – “Researchers who study extremist groups in the United States say there is no such thing as the ‘alt-left’. Mark Pitcavage, an analyst at the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), said the word had been made up to create a false equivalence between the far right and ‘anything vaguely left-seeming that they didn’t like’. (Although) some centrist liberals have taken to using this term, (…) ‘it did not arise organically, and it refers to no actual group or movement or network’.” [3]
Alt-light – Movement that “comprises members of the far right who once fell under the ‘alt-right’ umbrella but have since split from the group because, by and large, racism and anti-Semitism are not central to its far-right nationalist views”. In sum, “the alt-light is the alt-right without the racist overtones, but it is (sometimes) hard to differentiate.” [3]
Alt-right – “Racist, far-right movement based on an ideology of white nationalism and anti-Semitism. Many news organisations do not use the term, preferring terms like ‘white nationalism’ and ‘far right’. The movement’s self-professed goal is the creation of a white state and the destruction of ‘leftism’, which it calls ‘an ideology of death’. Richard B. Spencer, a leader in the movement, has described the movement as ‘identity politics for white people’. It is also anti-immigrant, anti-feminist and opposed to homosexuality and gay and transgender rights. It is highly decentralised but has a wide online presence, where its ideology is spread via racist or sexist memes with a satirical edge. It believes that higher education is ‘only appropriate for a cognitive elite’ and that most citizens should be educated in trade schools or apprenticeships.” [3]
American Front – “Longstanding racist skinhead group. In recent years, most of its members have been from California and Florida.” [1]
Anti-Racist is a Code Word for Anti-White – "’Anti-Racist is a Code Word for Anti-White’ is a racist slogan that became popular among white supremacists in the mid-2000s. It represents an attempt to create a rebuttal to accusations of racism.” [1]
Anti-Semitism – “Discrimination, hostility, persecution, and prejudice targeting Jews.” [4]
Antifa – “Contraction of the word ‘anti-fascist’. It was coined in Germany in the 1960s and 1970s by a network of groups that spread across Europe to confront right-wing extremists. (…) A similar movement was seen in the 1980s in the United States and has re-emerged recently as the ‘alt-right’ has risen to prominence. For some so-called antifa members, the goal is to physically confront white supremacists, (in order to) ‘get at them, to assault them and engage in street fighting’ (like) ‘an old left-wing extremist movement’.” [3]
Apostasy – “In an Islamic context, to purposefully cease to be a Muslim. The term apostate is used by Islamist extremists to label Muslim individuals, groups or nations that have, in their eyes, committed acts that go against their interpretation of Sharia law, so they may class as an apostate someone who considers themselves to be a good Muslim.” [2]
Aqidah – “‘Creed’: The core beliefs of the Islamic faith.” [2]
Aryan Brotherhood – “Oldest and most notorious racist prison gang in the United States. Its most common symbol is a shamrock, often in combination with a swastika.” [1]
Aryan Brotherhood of Texas – “One of the largest and most violent white supremacist prison gangs in the United States (and uses and hand sign symbol) consisting of a raised index finger and raised ring and little fingers, signifying the numbers 1 and 2. Substituting letters for numbers 1 and 2 stands for A and B, or Aryan Brotherhood. (This prison gang is) independent from and has no relationship to the "original" Aryan Brotherhood present in the California and federal prison systems.” [1]
Aryan Circle – “Second-largest white supremacist prison gang in Texas and one of the largest such gangs in the United States. Its most common tattoo, known as a "shield" or "patch," consists of a square oriented to form a diamond shape. Inside the diamond is typically a swastika and the initials AC; it is also common to include SS lightning bolts. (…) Its primary hand sign consists of holding up the thumb and the middle, ring, and little fingers of one hand, signifying the numbers 1 and 3 (which stand for AC). One can also hold up the little finger and the middle and index fingers, plus the thumb.” [1]
Aryan Cowboy Brotherhood – “Small white supremacist prison/street gang based primarily in Minnesota and Kentucky. Its main symbol consists of a helmeted and winged skull with the initials ACB.” [1]
Aryan Knights – “White supremacist prison gang based primarily in Idaho. They often use the initials AK to identify themselves with tattoos or writing.” [1]
Aryan Nations – “American neo-Nazi group with a long history of criminal activity. Its logo consists of a Wolfsangel symbol in which the vertical line is replaced by a sword. The largest white supremacist prison gang in Tennessee is Aryan Nations (a different group than the neo-Nazi group of the same name), (whose) gang members use a hand sign they sometimes refer to as "bolts up" or "bolts to the sky," consisting of forming the hand into a pistol shape and pointing it upwards or outwards. The prison gang symbol primary symbol or "shield," is a tattoo featuring a rounded Celtic Cross, with different symbols in each of the quadrants of the cross.” [1]
Aryan Renaissance Society – “Small, but long-lived white supremacist group that has resembled both a racist skinhead group and a prison clique at times. It has had members from a variety of places, but many came from Texas and New Jersey. Its logo is a phoenix image superimposed with a lightning bolt and a runic symbol.” [1]
Aryan Terror Brigade – “Racist skinhead group with members in the United States and Europe. The logo of the group is in the form of a Waffen SS divisional insignia outline, with a man's head and a gun, a wreath, and the initials ATB inside the outline. The shield has black, white, and red stripes (the colours of the Nazi flag).” [1]
Aryan Warriors – “Longstanding racist prison gang based in the Nevada prison system. Members have created a variety of tattoos, but many of them consist of the gang's name or initials, or have some sort of Viking-related imagery, such as horned helmets or axes.” [1]
Atlantic City Skins – “New Jersey-based racist skinhead group. Their logo consists of a rounded Celtic Cross on top of a row of skulls, which may have the initials ACS on them.” [1]
AYAK – “Ku Klux Klan shorthand for ‘Are You A Klansman?’.” [1]
B
Baqiyah – “Arabic word for “everlasting/enduring” or “it shall remain.” ISIS supporters and propagandists often use the term in an effort to project strength despite territorial loses. ISIS members also use the term as a hashtag on social media to solicit financial and emotional support, including prayers or donations.” [4]
Bay-ah (Bayat) – “A pledge of loyalty to a person. It has historically been seen as the oath of allegiance to the Khalifa or other ruler and the invocation of God’s blessing upon that ruler. Members of an Islamist extremist group will often swear bay’ah to the group’s leader.” [2]
Bid’ah – “‘Innovation’: In Islamic terms, innovation in religious belief or practice. In popular usage this roughly equates to the term ‘heresy’.” [2]
Blood & Honour – “International neo-Nazi/racist skinhead group started by British white supremacist and singer Ian Stuart.” [1]
Blood & Soil – Song chanted by marchers during the white supremacist rally in Charlottesville, August 2017. “The phrase is a 19th-century German nationalist term that connotes a mystical bond between the blood of an ethnic group and the soil of their country. It was used as a Nazi slogan in Germany during the 1930s and 1940s and since then ‘has been transported to neo-Nazi groups and other white supremacists around the world’, (becoming) one of several Nazi symbols that have been adopted as a slogan by some members of the ‘alt-right’.” [3]
Blue eyed devils – “Racial epithet directed against people of European ancestry that originated in Asia. Some white supremacists have adopted the term for themselves, including a white power music band that appropriated the name and created a distinctive logo consisting of a rounded Celtic Cross out of which a man points a gun.” [1]
Blut und ehre – “German phrase that translates into "Blood and Honor;" it was popularised by the Nazi Party (as a Hitler Youth slogan and elsewhere). Since World War II, this German phrase (and even more so for its English translation) has commonly been used by white supremacists in Europe, the United States, and elsewhere.” [1]
Boots and laces – “Racist skinheads prefer wearing steel-toed workboots, typically with red or white shoelaces laced a certain way.” [1]
Bound for glory – “Longstanding white power music band (dating back to 1989) from Minneapolis. It is popular among white supremacists. The main symbol associated with the band is a Thor's Hammer containing the band's initials. Also common are the band's initials in or superimposed over an Iron Cross. Both images derive from albums released by the group.” [1]
Brotherhood Forever – “Racist prison gang based in Tennessee that is also known as the Tennessee Aryan Brotherhood, according to prison officials. Its symbol consists of its name above and below SS lightning bolts. Sometimes these may appear within an Iron Cross symbol or shield symbol.” [1]
Brothers of White Warriors – “New Hampshire-based white supremacist prison gang. Its most common symbol is an Iron Cross inside of which usually appear the group's initials, jail bars, and a swastika, although the swastika can also appear below the Iron Cross and there are other variations.” [1]
Bay-ah (Bayat) – “A pledge of loyalty to a person. It has historically been seen as the oath of allegiance to the Khalifa or other ruler and the invocation of God’s blessing upon that ruler. Members of an Islamist extremist group will often swear bay’ah to the group’s leader.” [2]
Bid’ah – “‘Innovation’: In Islamic terms, innovation in religious belief or practice. In popular usage this roughly equates to the term ‘heresy’.” [2]
Blood & Honour – “International neo-Nazi/racist skinhead group started by British white supremacist and singer Ian Stuart.” [1]
Blood & Soil – Song chanted by marchers during the white supremacist rally in Charlottesville, August 2017. “The phrase is a 19th-century German nationalist term that connotes a mystical bond between the blood of an ethnic group and the soil of their country. It was used as a Nazi slogan in Germany during the 1930s and 1940s and since then ‘has been transported to neo-Nazi groups and other white supremacists around the world’, (becoming) one of several Nazi symbols that have been adopted as a slogan by some members of the ‘alt-right’.” [3]
Blue eyed devils – “Racial epithet directed against people of European ancestry that originated in Asia. Some white supremacists have adopted the term for themselves, including a white power music band that appropriated the name and created a distinctive logo consisting of a rounded Celtic Cross out of which a man points a gun.” [1]
Blut und ehre – “German phrase that translates into "Blood and Honor;" it was popularised by the Nazi Party (as a Hitler Youth slogan and elsewhere). Since World War II, this German phrase (and even more so for its English translation) has commonly been used by white supremacists in Europe, the United States, and elsewhere.” [1]
Boots and laces – “Racist skinheads prefer wearing steel-toed workboots, typically with red or white shoelaces laced a certain way.” [1]
Bound for glory – “Longstanding white power music band (dating back to 1989) from Minneapolis. It is popular among white supremacists. The main symbol associated with the band is a Thor's Hammer containing the band's initials. Also common are the band's initials in or superimposed over an Iron Cross. Both images derive from albums released by the group.” [1]
Brotherhood Forever – “Racist prison gang based in Tennessee that is also known as the Tennessee Aryan Brotherhood, according to prison officials. Its symbol consists of its name above and below SS lightning bolts. Sometimes these may appear within an Iron Cross symbol or shield symbol.” [1]
Brothers of White Warriors – “New Hampshire-based white supremacist prison gang. Its most common symbol is an Iron Cross inside of which usually appear the group's initials, jail bars, and a swastika, although the swastika can also appear below the Iron Cross and there are other variations.” [1]
C
Cognitive radicalisation – “Process through which an individual adopts ideas that are severely at odds with those of the mainstream, refutes the existing social order legitimacy, and seeks to replace it with a new structure, based on a completely different belief system.” [5]
Combination regime – Type of prison regime in which inmates convicted for crimes related to terrorism or suspected of radicalisation are placed either in a separate or ordinary regime, depending on risk assessment reports, as well as his/her individual behaviour. [6]
Concentration regime – Type of prison regime in which people convicted for crimes related to terrorism or suspected of radicalisation are placed in separate units. [6]
Conversion – Process that occurs when individuals change their religious identity or behaviour. [7]
Convert – “An individual who has converted to another religion.” [2]
COORS Family Skins – “Racist skinhead group whose members are primarily based in southern California. They use a logo consisting of an Othala rune combined with a runic symbol, but they also occasionally appropriate the logo for Coors Beer. (…) The word COORS is an acronym for ‘Comrades of our Racial Struggle’.” [1]
Counter-narrative – “(Message offering) an alternative view to extremist recruitment and propaganda. Messaging can provide an alternative answer or path to potential recruits who may be seeking guidance or meaning. Counter-narrative messaging may also seek to deconstruct extremist narratives and expose logical flaws.” [4]
Counter-radicalisation – “Policies and programmes aimed at addressing some of the conditions that may propel some individuals down the path of terrorism. It is used broadly to refer to a package of social, political, legal, educational and economic programmes specifically designed to deter disaffected (and possibly already radicalised) individuals from crossing the line and becoming terrorists.” [8]
Counter-radicalisation strategies (CRS) – “Specific sets of policies and initiatives designed to prevent radicalisation or to persuade people who have already chosen a radical path to leave it and return to mainstream society. The strategy sets goals, establishes methods, and divides responsibilities among key stakeholders.” [9]
Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) – “Set of strategies designed to counter extremist messages, propaganda, and recruitment. The measures can range from soft to hard and may include message development and communication, civil society initiatives, political action, new legislation, and intelligence and military operations.” [9]
Counterterrorism (CT) – “Combined efforts of policy-makers, law-enforcement agencies, government officials, businesses, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to prevent and combat terrorism.” [4]
Crazy White Boy/s or CWB – “Phrase used generically by some white supremacists (often as a tattoo), but also commonly used as the name for various white gangs. Although commonly used by white supremacists, others may also use the term, so it should be carefully judged in its context.” [1]
Creativity Movement – “White supremacist group that claims to be a religion for white people. Its symbol is a crown on top of a large W (for ‘white’).” [1]
Crew 1488 – “Sometimes called ‘Organisation 1488’, is a small racist prison gang based primarily in Alaska, though it has a small presence in Colorado. Its primary symbol consists of a swastika intertwined with an Iron Cross, with 14, 88 and SS lightning bolts inside the Iron Cross.” [1]
Crisis converts – Individuals who turn to religion in order to help themselves cope with personal crisis, such as the loss of liberty, struggles with addictions, and broken family relationships. [10]
Cuck – “Insult used by the ‘alt-right’ to attack the masculinity of an opponent, originally other conservatives, whom the movement deemed insufficiently committed to racism and anti-Semitism. It is short for ‘cuckold’, a word dating back to the Middle Ages that describes a man who knows his wife is sleeping with other men and does not object. (…) The use of the word by the ‘alt-right’ often had racial overtones.” [3]
Combination regime – Type of prison regime in which inmates convicted for crimes related to terrorism or suspected of radicalisation are placed either in a separate or ordinary regime, depending on risk assessment reports, as well as his/her individual behaviour. [6]
Concentration regime – Type of prison regime in which people convicted for crimes related to terrorism or suspected of radicalisation are placed in separate units. [6]
Conversion – Process that occurs when individuals change their religious identity or behaviour. [7]
Convert – “An individual who has converted to another religion.” [2]
COORS Family Skins – “Racist skinhead group whose members are primarily based in southern California. They use a logo consisting of an Othala rune combined with a runic symbol, but they also occasionally appropriate the logo for Coors Beer. (…) The word COORS is an acronym for ‘Comrades of our Racial Struggle’.” [1]
Counter-narrative – “(Message offering) an alternative view to extremist recruitment and propaganda. Messaging can provide an alternative answer or path to potential recruits who may be seeking guidance or meaning. Counter-narrative messaging may also seek to deconstruct extremist narratives and expose logical flaws.” [4]
Counter-radicalisation – “Policies and programmes aimed at addressing some of the conditions that may propel some individuals down the path of terrorism. It is used broadly to refer to a package of social, political, legal, educational and economic programmes specifically designed to deter disaffected (and possibly already radicalised) individuals from crossing the line and becoming terrorists.” [8]
Counter-radicalisation strategies (CRS) – “Specific sets of policies and initiatives designed to prevent radicalisation or to persuade people who have already chosen a radical path to leave it and return to mainstream society. The strategy sets goals, establishes methods, and divides responsibilities among key stakeholders.” [9]
Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) – “Set of strategies designed to counter extremist messages, propaganda, and recruitment. The measures can range from soft to hard and may include message development and communication, civil society initiatives, political action, new legislation, and intelligence and military operations.” [9]
Counterterrorism (CT) – “Combined efforts of policy-makers, law-enforcement agencies, government officials, businesses, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to prevent and combat terrorism.” [4]
Crazy White Boy/s or CWB – “Phrase used generically by some white supremacists (often as a tattoo), but also commonly used as the name for various white gangs. Although commonly used by white supremacists, others may also use the term, so it should be carefully judged in its context.” [1]
Creativity Movement – “White supremacist group that claims to be a religion for white people. Its symbol is a crown on top of a large W (for ‘white’).” [1]
Crew 1488 – “Sometimes called ‘Organisation 1488’, is a small racist prison gang based primarily in Alaska, though it has a small presence in Colorado. Its primary symbol consists of a swastika intertwined with an Iron Cross, with 14, 88 and SS lightning bolts inside the Iron Cross.” [1]
Crisis converts – Individuals who turn to religion in order to help themselves cope with personal crisis, such as the loss of liberty, struggles with addictions, and broken family relationships. [10]
Cuck – “Insult used by the ‘alt-right’ to attack the masculinity of an opponent, originally other conservatives, whom the movement deemed insufficiently committed to racism and anti-Semitism. It is short for ‘cuckold’, a word dating back to the Middle Ages that describes a man who knows his wife is sleeping with other men and does not object. (…) The use of the word by the ‘alt-right’ often had racial overtones.” [3]
D
Dabiq – “Title of the first Islamic State magazine. It is named after the town of Dabiq in northern Syria, which is the prophesied place of battle between Muslim and “infidel” armies when the Apocalypse comes. The message is that the end times are upon us, the Muslims will win, and young Muslims should join the victorious army.” [9]
Dar al-Ahd – “Territory that is not ruled by the laws of Islam but does have a peace treaty with an Islamic state.” [9]
Dar al-Harb – “‘The land (or domain) of war’: This is a term used to describe those territories held to be at war with Islam. For some this means any territory which is not in dar al-islam and includes the entire ‘West’ including the USA and UK.” [2]
Dar al-Hijrah – “‘The land (or domain) of emigration’: This is one of the titles given to Medina and land of Islam (see Dar al-Islam), because people emigrate to it from non- Islamic lands.” [2]
Dar al-Islam – “‘The land (or domain) of Islam’: This is a term used to describe the territories of Islam. The extent of these territories is highly contentious, with some Islamist extremists claiming that all lands which were once ruled by an Islamic state (such as Spain) should be included. Others maintain that even Muslim majority countries that are not ‘proper’ Islamic states are not part of the dar al-islam.” [2]
Dar al-Kufr – “‘The land (or domain) of unbelief’: This is a (semi-derogatory) term used to describe those countries where Islam is not the majority faith, and so means the same as dar al-harb.” [2]
Da’wah – “‘Summons’: The call to embrace Islam. Often the term used by Islamist extremists to describe their propaganda effort.” [2]
Dawlah – ‘State, government’: The word is often used to indicate a state, including an Islamic state. Currently used by some Islamist extremists as shorthand for the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, but can also mean any state of any variety.” [2]
Dawlah Islamiyyah – Arabic term for ‘Islamic state’. When used by jihadists, it may be a reference to the Islamic State (ISIS).” [4]
Deen – “‘Religion, faith, judgement’: In the context of Islamist extremism, used to denote Islam.” [2]
Deobandi – “A conservative movement very influential in South Asia and Afghanistan. The movement rejects Western influence and seeks a return to their interpretation of ‘classical’ Islam.” [2]
Deradicalisation – Process used to try to change an individual’s belief system and encourage them to relinquish their extremist ideology and accept the values of the majority. [11]
Dhimmi – “A non-Muslim (individual) living under an Islamic state. Dhimmis have second class status. They must pay a “jizya” tax for their protection. However, they are granted some religious freedoms and are exempted from some duties imposed on Muslims by the Islamic state.” [9]
Disengagement – Disengagement measures usually try to rehabilitate radicalised individuals or terrorist groups (alleged or convicted) and reintegrate them into society, or at least deter them from resorting to political violence again. [12]
Dispersal regime – Type of prison regime in which people convicted for crimes related to terrorism or suspected of radicalisation are placed among the mainstream prison population and fall under the same general regime units. [6]
Dunya – “‘The world’: The term used in the Qur’an and religious tradition to refer to the material world, rather than the spiritual world.” [2]
Dynamic security – Working method by which basic grade prison staff are trained and encouraged to develop good personal relationships with inmates, to know and understand them as individuals, to provide sympathetic help with personal problems and to engage in meaningful dialogues with them. It offers the possibility of providing warning information before an incident takes place, allowing prison staff to take preventive action to hinder that incident from occurring. [13]
Dar al-Ahd – “Territory that is not ruled by the laws of Islam but does have a peace treaty with an Islamic state.” [9]
Dar al-Harb – “‘The land (or domain) of war’: This is a term used to describe those territories held to be at war with Islam. For some this means any territory which is not in dar al-islam and includes the entire ‘West’ including the USA and UK.” [2]
Dar al-Hijrah – “‘The land (or domain) of emigration’: This is one of the titles given to Medina and land of Islam (see Dar al-Islam), because people emigrate to it from non- Islamic lands.” [2]
Dar al-Islam – “‘The land (or domain) of Islam’: This is a term used to describe the territories of Islam. The extent of these territories is highly contentious, with some Islamist extremists claiming that all lands which were once ruled by an Islamic state (such as Spain) should be included. Others maintain that even Muslim majority countries that are not ‘proper’ Islamic states are not part of the dar al-islam.” [2]
Dar al-Kufr – “‘The land (or domain) of unbelief’: This is a (semi-derogatory) term used to describe those countries where Islam is not the majority faith, and so means the same as dar al-harb.” [2]
Da’wah – “‘Summons’: The call to embrace Islam. Often the term used by Islamist extremists to describe their propaganda effort.” [2]
Dawlah – ‘State, government’: The word is often used to indicate a state, including an Islamic state. Currently used by some Islamist extremists as shorthand for the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, but can also mean any state of any variety.” [2]
Dawlah Islamiyyah – Arabic term for ‘Islamic state’. When used by jihadists, it may be a reference to the Islamic State (ISIS).” [4]
Deen – “‘Religion, faith, judgement’: In the context of Islamist extremism, used to denote Islam.” [2]
Deobandi – “A conservative movement very influential in South Asia and Afghanistan. The movement rejects Western influence and seeks a return to their interpretation of ‘classical’ Islam.” [2]
Deradicalisation – Process used to try to change an individual’s belief system and encourage them to relinquish their extremist ideology and accept the values of the majority. [11]
Dhimmi – “A non-Muslim (individual) living under an Islamic state. Dhimmis have second class status. They must pay a “jizya” tax for their protection. However, they are granted some religious freedoms and are exempted from some duties imposed on Muslims by the Islamic state.” [9]
Disengagement – Disengagement measures usually try to rehabilitate radicalised individuals or terrorist groups (alleged or convicted) and reintegrate them into society, or at least deter them from resorting to political violence again. [12]
Dispersal regime – Type of prison regime in which people convicted for crimes related to terrorism or suspected of radicalisation are placed among the mainstream prison population and fall under the same general regime units. [6]
Dunya – “‘The world’: The term used in the Qur’an and religious tradition to refer to the material world, rather than the spiritual world.” [2]
Dynamic security – Working method by which basic grade prison staff are trained and encouraged to develop good personal relationships with inmates, to know and understand them as individuals, to provide sympathetic help with personal problems and to engage in meaningful dialogues with them. It offers the possibility of providing warning information before an incident takes place, allowing prison staff to take preventive action to hinder that incident from occurring. [13]
E
Emir – “A commander, prince or leader. Also spelled ‘Amir’. Often used to designate the leader of an Islamist extremist network or group.” [2]
ETA – Acronym for Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (in English, Basque Fatherland and Liberty), a left-winged separatist group created at the end of the 1950s. It was originated due to the “political persecution of the Basque culture and language under Franco’s regime, (that eventually) led to the radicalisation of (the) Basque nationalist consciousness, not only supporting separatism and independence, but also legitimising the armed violence of the organisation.” [14]
Ethnoviolence – “Acts of violence motivated by prejudice or supremacy.” [15]
European Kindred – “Large white supremacist prison gang based primarily in Oregon. Its primary symbol is a "shield" tattoo containing the initials EK, often displayed on the calf (and their) gang members often use a two-handed hand sign in which three fingers of one hand are spread to look like an E and two fingers of another hand are spread to resemble a K.” [1]
Extremism –
ETA – Acronym for Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (in English, Basque Fatherland and Liberty), a left-winged separatist group created at the end of the 1950s. It was originated due to the “political persecution of the Basque culture and language under Franco’s regime, (that eventually) led to the radicalisation of (the) Basque nationalist consciousness, not only supporting separatism and independence, but also legitimising the armed violence of the organisation.” [14]
Ethnoviolence – “Acts of violence motivated by prejudice or supremacy.” [15]
European Kindred – “Large white supremacist prison gang based primarily in Oregon. Its primary symbol is a "shield" tattoo containing the initials EK, often displayed on the calf (and their) gang members often use a two-handed hand sign in which three fingers of one hand are spread to look like an E and two fingers of another hand are spread to resemble a K.” [1]
Extremism –
- “Immoderate uncompromising views and measures beyond the norm. For the most part, extremist groups pose a threat to public order, but not to national security”. [7]
- “Holding of extreme political or religious views, often advocating illegal, violent, or other forms of extreme behaviour.” [4]
F
Fard ‘ayn – “‘Individual religious duty’: A religious obligation that falls upon the individual (such as prayer). Most Islamist extremists view violent Jihad as fard ‘ayn.” [2]
Fard kifayah – “‘Communal religious duty’: A religious obligation that falls upon the state or the community to fulfil. Most Muslims regard Jihad as fard kifayah.” [2]
Far-left extremism (or extreme left) – “Ideology that advocates anti-capitalist, anti-imperialist, and pro-socialist ideals. Left-wing extremist groups seek to bring about societal change through revolutionary tactics, (whose) proponents view themselves as advocates against oppression.” [4]
Far-right extremism (or extreme right) –
“Form of conservative ideology that typically supports neo-Nazism, racism, and xenophobia.” [4]
Term “used to describe right-wing political, social and religious movements that exist outside of and are more radical than mainstream conservatism. In the United States, the extreme right consists primarily of two large, slightly overlapping spheres. In one sphere is the white supremacist movement, including its various submovements, such as neo-Nazis, racist skinheads, and the alt right, among others. In the other sphere are anti-government extremist movements such as the militia movement and sovereign citizens (collectively, this sphere is often referred to as the “Patriot” movement). Also, in the extreme right are several “single-issue” movements, which each tend to be the extreme wing of a more mainstream conservative movement; these include anti-abortion extremists, anti-immigrant extremists, anti-Muslim extremists, and anti-public lands extremists, among others.” [15]
Fascism – “Especially virulent form of far-right populism. Fascism glorifies national, racial, or cultural unity and collective rebirth while seeking to purge imagined enemies, and attacks both revolutionary movements and liberal pluralism in favour of militarised, totalitarian mass politics. Fascism first crystallised in Europe in response to the Bolshevik Revolution and the devastation of World War I, and then spread to other parts of the world. If it is a post-WWII occurrence it should be called neofascist or neofascism unless it solely involves participants in older movements. Neofascists reinterpret fascist ideology and strategy in various ways to fit new circumstances.” [15]
Fatwa – “An Islamic legal opinion, issued by a legal scholar known as a mufti. A fatwa is usually issued as a response to a specific question. The weight of the opinion is directly linked to the authority of the scholar issuing it. Scholars linked to terrorist organisations have issued their own fatwas about the legality of specific terrorist acts or operations.” [2]
Featherwood – “Word deriving from the related term ‘peckerwood’, (referring) to a woman belonging to or associating with the racist prison gang subculture (or, mostly in California, with peckerwood street gangs as well).” [1]
FGRN – “Ku Klux Klan acronym for ‘For God, Race and Nation’, a common Klan slogan.” [1]
Fiqh – “Islamic law or Jurisprudence. The parts of the Sharia that can be expressed as clear rules, rather than (for example) as ethical principles.” [2]
Firm 22 – “Name used by the Vinlanders Social Club, a racist skinhead group, to refer to supporters and associates of the group who are not actually members. The number 22 stands for the letter V.” [1]
Fisq – “Islamic concept meaning sin or disobedience of God. In some interpretations of Islam, fisq is considered the first stage of rebellion against God, the second being ‘kafir’, and the third being ‘taghut’.” [4]
Fitnah – “Chaos, disorder, internal dissension or strife.” [2]
Fitrah – “Natural (meaning the created human nature) disposition of people, which includes the instinct to worship only Allah, attraction to the opposite gender and the fear of death. It can refer to instinctive acts of natural cleanliness, for example cutting nails, trimming moustache.” [2]
Foreign terrorist fighter – Individual who leaves (or tries to leave) from his/her Westernised country to fight somewhere else. The term “foreign fighting” includes the use of any military activity (training or fighting) or tactic (terrorist or guerrilla tactics) against any enemy (Western or non-Western), as long as it occurs outside the West. [16]
Free America Rally – “Loosely-coordinated network of white supremacists who hold protests and rallies on white supremacist-related themes. The logo for Free America Rally is an amalgam of several runic symbols in the centre of a laurel wreath.” [1]
Free-world recruited converts – Those who engage in interactions with free-world religious leaders who provide them with religious materials in prison and promise them help and resources after their release. [10]
Fard kifayah – “‘Communal religious duty’: A religious obligation that falls upon the state or the community to fulfil. Most Muslims regard Jihad as fard kifayah.” [2]
Far-left extremism (or extreme left) – “Ideology that advocates anti-capitalist, anti-imperialist, and pro-socialist ideals. Left-wing extremist groups seek to bring about societal change through revolutionary tactics, (whose) proponents view themselves as advocates against oppression.” [4]
Far-right extremism (or extreme right) –
“Form of conservative ideology that typically supports neo-Nazism, racism, and xenophobia.” [4]
Term “used to describe right-wing political, social and religious movements that exist outside of and are more radical than mainstream conservatism. In the United States, the extreme right consists primarily of two large, slightly overlapping spheres. In one sphere is the white supremacist movement, including its various submovements, such as neo-Nazis, racist skinheads, and the alt right, among others. In the other sphere are anti-government extremist movements such as the militia movement and sovereign citizens (collectively, this sphere is often referred to as the “Patriot” movement). Also, in the extreme right are several “single-issue” movements, which each tend to be the extreme wing of a more mainstream conservative movement; these include anti-abortion extremists, anti-immigrant extremists, anti-Muslim extremists, and anti-public lands extremists, among others.” [15]
Fascism – “Especially virulent form of far-right populism. Fascism glorifies national, racial, or cultural unity and collective rebirth while seeking to purge imagined enemies, and attacks both revolutionary movements and liberal pluralism in favour of militarised, totalitarian mass politics. Fascism first crystallised in Europe in response to the Bolshevik Revolution and the devastation of World War I, and then spread to other parts of the world. If it is a post-WWII occurrence it should be called neofascist or neofascism unless it solely involves participants in older movements. Neofascists reinterpret fascist ideology and strategy in various ways to fit new circumstances.” [15]
Fatwa – “An Islamic legal opinion, issued by a legal scholar known as a mufti. A fatwa is usually issued as a response to a specific question. The weight of the opinion is directly linked to the authority of the scholar issuing it. Scholars linked to terrorist organisations have issued their own fatwas about the legality of specific terrorist acts or operations.” [2]
Featherwood – “Word deriving from the related term ‘peckerwood’, (referring) to a woman belonging to or associating with the racist prison gang subculture (or, mostly in California, with peckerwood street gangs as well).” [1]
FGRN – “Ku Klux Klan acronym for ‘For God, Race and Nation’, a common Klan slogan.” [1]
Fiqh – “Islamic law or Jurisprudence. The parts of the Sharia that can be expressed as clear rules, rather than (for example) as ethical principles.” [2]
Firm 22 – “Name used by the Vinlanders Social Club, a racist skinhead group, to refer to supporters and associates of the group who are not actually members. The number 22 stands for the letter V.” [1]
Fisq – “Islamic concept meaning sin or disobedience of God. In some interpretations of Islam, fisq is considered the first stage of rebellion against God, the second being ‘kafir’, and the third being ‘taghut’.” [4]
Fitnah – “Chaos, disorder, internal dissension or strife.” [2]
Fitrah – “Natural (meaning the created human nature) disposition of people, which includes the instinct to worship only Allah, attraction to the opposite gender and the fear of death. It can refer to instinctive acts of natural cleanliness, for example cutting nails, trimming moustache.” [2]
Foreign terrorist fighter – Individual who leaves (or tries to leave) from his/her Westernised country to fight somewhere else. The term “foreign fighting” includes the use of any military activity (training or fighting) or tactic (terrorist or guerrilla tactics) against any enemy (Western or non-Western), as long as it occurs outside the West. [16]
Free America Rally – “Loosely-coordinated network of white supremacists who hold protests and rallies on white supremacist-related themes. The logo for Free America Rally is an amalgam of several runic symbols in the centre of a laurel wreath.” [1]
Free-world recruited converts – Those who engage in interactions with free-world religious leaders who provide them with religious materials in prison and promise them help and resources after their release. [10]
G
Golden State Solidarity – “Also known as Golden State Skinheads, is a California-based racist skinhead group. Their most common symbol consists of a red-and-white Waffen SS divisional shield containing an Iron Cross and a red star. Sometimes instead of appearing in a shield, these items appear in an image in the shape of California.” [1]
H
H8 – “White supremacists use the letter/number combination H8 to mean "hate". This usage dates back at least to the 1990s and may originally derive from the punk subculture, but it has become more common in recent years, with the spread of text-message abbreviations. Common motifs for the word include playing cards and billiards balls.” [1]
Hadith – “‘Speech’ or ‘report’: A report of the sayings or deeds of the Prophet Muhammad and his Companions. These reports form one of the foundations of Islamic law.” [2]
Hammerskins – “Large racist skinhead gang with a history of violence. Their logo consists of two crossed hammers, typically superimposed over a cogwheel, (while their hand sign) consists of two crossed forearms emulating the crossed hammers.” [1]
Haram – “‘Forbidden’, ‘proscribed’, or ‘sacred’: In common usage this term refers to an act or item that is forbidden by Islamic law. In terms of the holy cities of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem, it refers to the sacred precinct around each city in which a person must behave in accordance with the sacred nature of the site.” [2]
Hate crime – “A legal term that describes criminal acts motivated by prejudice. The term ethnoviolence is a broader term that describes acts of intimidation whether or not deemed illegal.” [15]
Hate Edge – “Also known as NS or National Socialist Straight Edge, is a small white supremacist offshoot of the non-racist Straight Edge movement, which emerged from the punk subculture in the 1980s. Straight Edgers eschew drugs, alcohol, meat, and often casual sex. Hate Edgers typically use common Straight Edge symbols with white supremacist twists or additions.” [1]
Hate group – “Term (…) used to describe any organisation in any sector of society that aggressively demonises or dehumanises members of a scapegoated target group in a systematic way.” [15]
Hated – “Racist skinhead group active in New Jersey, Florida, and elsewhere. Members use a variety of symbols but one of the most common is a white fist inside a cogwheel, with the number 14 and the words The Hated on the outside.” [1]
Hawala – “Ancient remittance system developed in South Asia. An alternative to banking, the hawala system is often used to process legitimate remittance transactions. Terrorist organisations have, however, occasionally exploited the hawala system to launder money without easy detection by law enforcement.” [4]
Heteropatriarchy – The combination of male supremacy and heterosexual supremacy. [15]
Heterosexism – “Ideology that assumes a hierarchy of human worth based on the social construction of what is a ‘normal’ sexual identity. Heterosexism is a form of heterosexual supremacy developed to claim that sexual relations between men and women are ‘natural’, while other forms of sexual expression are unnatural, abnormal, inferior, or sinful. While heterosexism as a belief system can exist anecdotally among people who are gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgender (sometimes as a backlash response to oppression) it is not an equivalent phenomenon, and it does not create oppression. Heterosexism + discrimination + power/privilege = sexuality oppression. Sometimes the term heterosexism is used to describe the entire system of oppression based on sexual identity. In this larger context, heterosexism can refer to forms that are internal, interpersonal, institutional, or systemic. The term heterosexist ideology describes ideas, while the term heterosexist discrimination describes acts.” [15]
HFFH – “Acronym used by the Hammerskins, a large racist skinhead gang. It stands for ‘Hammerskins Forever, Forever Hammerskins’, a format probably adopted from biker gangs.” [1]
Hijrah – “‘Migration’ or ‘dissociation’: Meaning to migrate or to change one’s affiliation from one group to another. The term generally refers to the Prophet Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina in the year 632, which became the first year of the Islamic calendar. In Islamist extremist ideology it has been used to refer to either a spiritual or physical withdrawal from the ‘un-Islamist’ world.” [2]
Hisba – “Duty of promoting good and discouraging evil.” [2]
Hizb – “‘A sixtieth’: In the Qur’an, the term refers to factions that might weaken the religion. In modern usage it means ‘Party’. Used as a derogatory term by some Islamist extremists for members of groups such as Hizb ut-Tahrir who are seen as overly ‘political’. Occasionally used as a derogatory shorthand for a member of the Shi’a group, Hezbollah.” [2]
Homegrown terrorist fighter – Individual involved in the support, preparation or even the execution of a terrorist attack within their own country or, more broadly, in the West. At the core of the notion ‘homegrown’ is the idea of radicalised people who were born and raised in the West. [17]
Homophobia – Term “used to describe the fear, discrimination, and persecution of gay people.” [4]
HSN – “Acronym used by the Hammerskins, a large racist skinhead gang. It stands for ‘Hammerskin Nation’, which is a collective reference to the various regional Hammerskin gangs such as the Confederate Hammerskins (or the) Northern Hammerskins.” [1]
Hubs – “Radicalisation hubs are places with a particularly high number of radicalised individuals. The formation of these hubs is often driven by militant Islamist groups or radical mosques, charismatic extremist personalities, or tightly knit groups of friends without formal leadership. The concept of radicalisation hubs is also based upon the fact that the vast majority of individuals who radicalise do so in small groups. A supportive environment can help hubs to develop. In some European urban areas large numbers of people are indifferent to radicalisation or simply blame the government for the phenomenon rather than extremists. In these areas the authorities are also widely mistrusted and disliked, which makes anti-terrorist investigations very difficult. Obviously, exceptions exist and some individuals radicalise in complete solitude, without any contact with like-minded individuals in the physical space.” [9]
Hadith – “‘Speech’ or ‘report’: A report of the sayings or deeds of the Prophet Muhammad and his Companions. These reports form one of the foundations of Islamic law.” [2]
Hammerskins – “Large racist skinhead gang with a history of violence. Their logo consists of two crossed hammers, typically superimposed over a cogwheel, (while their hand sign) consists of two crossed forearms emulating the crossed hammers.” [1]
Haram – “‘Forbidden’, ‘proscribed’, or ‘sacred’: In common usage this term refers to an act or item that is forbidden by Islamic law. In terms of the holy cities of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem, it refers to the sacred precinct around each city in which a person must behave in accordance with the sacred nature of the site.” [2]
Hate crime – “A legal term that describes criminal acts motivated by prejudice. The term ethnoviolence is a broader term that describes acts of intimidation whether or not deemed illegal.” [15]
Hate Edge – “Also known as NS or National Socialist Straight Edge, is a small white supremacist offshoot of the non-racist Straight Edge movement, which emerged from the punk subculture in the 1980s. Straight Edgers eschew drugs, alcohol, meat, and often casual sex. Hate Edgers typically use common Straight Edge symbols with white supremacist twists or additions.” [1]
Hate group – “Term (…) used to describe any organisation in any sector of society that aggressively demonises or dehumanises members of a scapegoated target group in a systematic way.” [15]
Hated – “Racist skinhead group active in New Jersey, Florida, and elsewhere. Members use a variety of symbols but one of the most common is a white fist inside a cogwheel, with the number 14 and the words The Hated on the outside.” [1]
Hawala – “Ancient remittance system developed in South Asia. An alternative to banking, the hawala system is often used to process legitimate remittance transactions. Terrorist organisations have, however, occasionally exploited the hawala system to launder money without easy detection by law enforcement.” [4]
Heteropatriarchy – The combination of male supremacy and heterosexual supremacy. [15]
Heterosexism – “Ideology that assumes a hierarchy of human worth based on the social construction of what is a ‘normal’ sexual identity. Heterosexism is a form of heterosexual supremacy developed to claim that sexual relations between men and women are ‘natural’, while other forms of sexual expression are unnatural, abnormal, inferior, or sinful. While heterosexism as a belief system can exist anecdotally among people who are gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgender (sometimes as a backlash response to oppression) it is not an equivalent phenomenon, and it does not create oppression. Heterosexism + discrimination + power/privilege = sexuality oppression. Sometimes the term heterosexism is used to describe the entire system of oppression based on sexual identity. In this larger context, heterosexism can refer to forms that are internal, interpersonal, institutional, or systemic. The term heterosexist ideology describes ideas, while the term heterosexist discrimination describes acts.” [15]
HFFH – “Acronym used by the Hammerskins, a large racist skinhead gang. It stands for ‘Hammerskins Forever, Forever Hammerskins’, a format probably adopted from biker gangs.” [1]
Hijrah – “‘Migration’ or ‘dissociation’: Meaning to migrate or to change one’s affiliation from one group to another. The term generally refers to the Prophet Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina in the year 632, which became the first year of the Islamic calendar. In Islamist extremist ideology it has been used to refer to either a spiritual or physical withdrawal from the ‘un-Islamist’ world.” [2]
Hisba – “Duty of promoting good and discouraging evil.” [2]
Hizb – “‘A sixtieth’: In the Qur’an, the term refers to factions that might weaken the religion. In modern usage it means ‘Party’. Used as a derogatory term by some Islamist extremists for members of groups such as Hizb ut-Tahrir who are seen as overly ‘political’. Occasionally used as a derogatory shorthand for a member of the Shi’a group, Hezbollah.” [2]
Homegrown terrorist fighter – Individual involved in the support, preparation or even the execution of a terrorist attack within their own country or, more broadly, in the West. At the core of the notion ‘homegrown’ is the idea of radicalised people who were born and raised in the West. [17]
Homophobia – Term “used to describe the fear, discrimination, and persecution of gay people.” [4]
HSN – “Acronym used by the Hammerskins, a large racist skinhead gang. It stands for ‘Hammerskin Nation’, which is a collective reference to the various regional Hammerskin gangs such as the Confederate Hammerskins (or the) Northern Hammerskins.” [1]
Hubs – “Radicalisation hubs are places with a particularly high number of radicalised individuals. The formation of these hubs is often driven by militant Islamist groups or radical mosques, charismatic extremist personalities, or tightly knit groups of friends without formal leadership. The concept of radicalisation hubs is also based upon the fact that the vast majority of individuals who radicalise do so in small groups. A supportive environment can help hubs to develop. In some European urban areas large numbers of people are indifferent to radicalisation or simply blame the government for the phenomenon rather than extremists. In these areas the authorities are also widely mistrusted and disliked, which makes anti-terrorist investigations very difficult. Obviously, exceptions exist and some individuals radicalise in complete solitude, without any contact with like-minded individuals in the physical space.” [9]
I
Ikhwan – “‘Brothers’. The term may refer to the Muslim Brotherhood, whose full name is “al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun.” [4]
Imam – Person who leads prayers in a mosque and “(embodies) civic virtues, interfaith tolerance, professional managerial and pastoral skills, possibly (becoming) involved in inner city regeneration, (working) as an agent of national integration (most importantly on behalf of his young unruly flock), and wage a jihad against extremism.” [18]
Iman – “‘Belief’ or ‘faith’: The word has the sense of not just belief, but also of security and safety.” [2]
Indiana Aryan Brotherhood – “Large white supremacist prison gang based in Indiana. It is active both in Indiana prisons and on the streets. Despite its name, it has no connection to the "original" Aryan Brotherhood, which is based in the California and federal prison systems.” [1]
Indoctrination – Educational process in which individuals are convinced of the importance of the cause and of the necessary means for its implementation. [19]
Inland Empire Skinheads – “Racist skinhead group based in southern California. Their logo consists of a red circle containing two crossed battle-axes.” [1]
Islamic fundamentalism –
Islamism –
Islamist –
ITSUB – “Ku Klux Klan acronym for ‘In The Sacred Unfailing Being’, a reference to God. It is one of many Klan acronyms created by the Second Ku Klux Klan that emerged in 1915.” [1]
Izhaar al-Deen – “The dominance of the religion of Islam over all other ways of life.” [2]
Imam – Person who leads prayers in a mosque and “(embodies) civic virtues, interfaith tolerance, professional managerial and pastoral skills, possibly (becoming) involved in inner city regeneration, (working) as an agent of national integration (most importantly on behalf of his young unruly flock), and wage a jihad against extremism.” [18]
Iman – “‘Belief’ or ‘faith’: The word has the sense of not just belief, but also of security and safety.” [2]
Indiana Aryan Brotherhood – “Large white supremacist prison gang based in Indiana. It is active both in Indiana prisons and on the streets. Despite its name, it has no connection to the "original" Aryan Brotherhood, which is based in the California and federal prison systems.” [1]
Indoctrination – Educational process in which individuals are convinced of the importance of the cause and of the necessary means for its implementation. [19]
Inland Empire Skinheads – “Racist skinhead group based in southern California. Their logo consists of a red circle containing two crossed battle-axes.” [1]
Islamic fundamentalism –
- Form of Islamism whose followers adhere to a literalist interpretation of the Quran, believing in the ‘fundamental’ truths of the holy scripts of Islam and seeking to remove any non-Islamic influences from their lives. [20]
- “A semi-derogatory term used to describe forms of Islamic belief and practice that fall outside the norms of ‘mainstream’ Islamic practice, usually of an overtly political or behaviourally conservative nature” [2]
Islamism –
- “Forms of political theory and practice that have as their goal the establishment of an Islamic political order in the sense of a state whose governmental principles, institutions and legal system derive directly from the Shari’ah.” [21]
- “Political ideology that strives to create a state and society in conformity with religious doctrine and Shari’ah law. Islamism, as such, does not have to include a violent aspect”. [7]
Islamist –
- “Person who uses religious arguments to further political goals”. [7]
- An individual, group, or movement that believes that Islamic law should provide the foundation for the governance of a state.” [2]
ITSUB – “Ku Klux Klan acronym for ‘In The Sacred Unfailing Being’, a reference to God. It is one of many Klan acronyms created by the Second Ku Klux Klan that emerged in 1915.” [1]
Izhaar al-Deen – “The dominance of the religion of Islam over all other ways of life.” [2]
J
Jannah – “‘Paradise’: The afterlife for believers.” [2]
Jihad – “Arabic term for ‘struggle’ in all its forms. Colloquially has been used as a short-hand term for a religious war, although this is regarded as insulting by many Muslims.” [2]
Jihad al-Nafs – “‘The struggle against the lower self.” [2]
Jihad as-Sayf – “‘The struggle of the sword’.” [2]
Jihadi – “An individual, group, or movement that believes that violent Jihad in defence of ‘occupied’ Muslim territory is currently required, and is engaged in, actively prepares for, or promotes acts of violence to carry this out.” [2]
Jihadism –
Jihadist – Individual who “reject(s) participation in the political system and use(s) violence to advance (his/her) goals, (claiming) divine sanction for (his/her) actions by presenting them as Jihad fi sabil Allah (jihad in the path of God, or for the cause of God).” [9]
Jihad – “Arabic term for ‘struggle’ in all its forms. Colloquially has been used as a short-hand term for a religious war, although this is regarded as insulting by many Muslims.” [2]
Jihad al-Nafs – “‘The struggle against the lower self.” [2]
Jihad as-Sayf – “‘The struggle of the sword’.” [2]
Jihadi – “An individual, group, or movement that believes that violent Jihad in defence of ‘occupied’ Muslim territory is currently required, and is engaged in, actively prepares for, or promotes acts of violence to carry this out.” [2]
Jihadism –
- “Armed confrontation with political rivals is a theologically legitimate and instrumentally efficient method for socio-political change.” [22]
- “(Similar to terrorism, it focuses on being) a means to an end, not an end in itself, except perhaps for single individuals in an existential sense. (The end) may be the fall of a local regime, or the liberation of a territory from foreign, non-Muslim rule, or even to bring about the retreat of American global power. This political change will generally be considered a means to the further end of establishing a good life.” [23]
Jihadist – Individual who “reject(s) participation in the political system and use(s) violence to advance (his/her) goals, (claiming) divine sanction for (his/her) actions by presenting them as Jihad fi sabil Allah (jihad in the path of God, or for the cause of God).” [9]
K
KABARK – “Ku Klux Klan acronym for ‘Konstantly Applied By All Regular Klansmen’. Today it is essentially meaningless and only used as a ‘sign off’ in on-line messages by Klan group members.” [1]
Kafir – “‘Disbeliever’ or infidel who has rejected Islam. ‘Kuffar’ is the plural of kafir, which can also be spelt ‘kaafir’ and is sometimes misspelt as ‘kaffir’.” [2]
Keystone State Skinheads – “Regional racist skinhead gang based in Pennsylvania, especially eastern Pennsylvania. Their logo consists of an image of the head of a pitbull superimposed over a keystone coloured red, white, and black (the colours of the Nazi flag).” [1]
Khalifah (Caliph) – “Caliph, the ‘deputy’ of God on Earth. Normally applied to the early successors to the Prophet as leaders of the Islamic state or khilafah and by later imperial rulers up to 1924. Used by extremists to refer to the head of a hoped-for future pan-Islamic state.” [2]
Khilafah (Caliphate) – “Used by extremists to refer to a hoped-for future pan-Islamic state. There is no routinely agreed definition of the notional boundaries of the desired khilafah.” [2]
Khomeinism – “The Islamist, populist agenda promoted by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, which continues to inspire the Iranian government and various proxy extremist groups, including Hezbollah in Lebanon and several Shiite militias in Iraq.” [4]
Khurasan – “Historically, an Islamic province that covered Eastern Iran as well as parts of Afghanistan and Central Asia. Term used by Islamist extremists to refer to modern day Afghanistan.” [2]
KIGY – “Ku Klux Klan shorthand for ‘Klansman I Greet You’.” [1]
KLASP – “Ku Klux Klan acronym for ‘Klannish Loyalty, A Sacred Principle’.” [1]
Ku Klux Klan – “Also known as ‘KKK’ or ‘the Klan’, is America’s best-known hate group (…) dedicated to white supremacy. However, the Klan’s power and standing has declined dramatically in the decades since its peak years of millions-strong membership. In fact, the KKK is no longer a single, cohesive organisation, having splintered into at least four main offshoots and dozens of smaller factions, all of which identify as members of ‘the Klan’ and incorporate ‘Klan’ in their group names. However, the Klan’s influence remains significant, especially among U.S. hate groups. The KKK has also attracted ‘vast numbers of sympathisers’ due to its geographical diffusion across 41 states and historical notoriety. (…) It is the oldest hate group in the United States.” [4]
Kufr – “‘Unbelief’: In Islamist extremist terms, any act that does not agree with their narrow definition of correct action and belief.” [2]
Khawarij (Kharijites) – “The name given to a number of groups in early Islamic history who are now regarded by ‘mainstream’ Muslims as extremists. A derogatory term for any Islamic group seen to be holding extreme beliefs, particularly in relation to violence or overthrowing the state. Often used by non-extremist Muslims as a pejorative term for extremists.” [2]
Kafir – “‘Disbeliever’ or infidel who has rejected Islam. ‘Kuffar’ is the plural of kafir, which can also be spelt ‘kaafir’ and is sometimes misspelt as ‘kaffir’.” [2]
Keystone State Skinheads – “Regional racist skinhead gang based in Pennsylvania, especially eastern Pennsylvania. Their logo consists of an image of the head of a pitbull superimposed over a keystone coloured red, white, and black (the colours of the Nazi flag).” [1]
Khalifah (Caliph) – “Caliph, the ‘deputy’ of God on Earth. Normally applied to the early successors to the Prophet as leaders of the Islamic state or khilafah and by later imperial rulers up to 1924. Used by extremists to refer to the head of a hoped-for future pan-Islamic state.” [2]
Khilafah (Caliphate) – “Used by extremists to refer to a hoped-for future pan-Islamic state. There is no routinely agreed definition of the notional boundaries of the desired khilafah.” [2]
Khomeinism – “The Islamist, populist agenda promoted by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, which continues to inspire the Iranian government and various proxy extremist groups, including Hezbollah in Lebanon and several Shiite militias in Iraq.” [4]
Khurasan – “Historically, an Islamic province that covered Eastern Iran as well as parts of Afghanistan and Central Asia. Term used by Islamist extremists to refer to modern day Afghanistan.” [2]
KIGY – “Ku Klux Klan shorthand for ‘Klansman I Greet You’.” [1]
KLASP – “Ku Klux Klan acronym for ‘Klannish Loyalty, A Sacred Principle’.” [1]
Ku Klux Klan – “Also known as ‘KKK’ or ‘the Klan’, is America’s best-known hate group (…) dedicated to white supremacy. However, the Klan’s power and standing has declined dramatically in the decades since its peak years of millions-strong membership. In fact, the KKK is no longer a single, cohesive organisation, having splintered into at least four main offshoots and dozens of smaller factions, all of which identify as members of ‘the Klan’ and incorporate ‘Klan’ in their group names. However, the Klan’s influence remains significant, especially among U.S. hate groups. The KKK has also attracted ‘vast numbers of sympathisers’ due to its geographical diffusion across 41 states and historical notoriety. (…) It is the oldest hate group in the United States.” [4]
Kufr – “‘Unbelief’: In Islamist extremist terms, any act that does not agree with their narrow definition of correct action and belief.” [2]
Khawarij (Kharijites) – “The name given to a number of groups in early Islamic history who are now regarded by ‘mainstream’ Muslims as extremists. A derogatory term for any Islamic group seen to be holding extreme beliefs, particularly in relation to violence or overthrowing the state. Often used by non-extremist Muslims as a pejorative term for extremists.” [2]
L
Lone wolf – “Terrorist who acts completely on his or her own, without operational assistance or even communication with other extremists. Wolves hunt in packs, so a single wolf “hunting” on its own is something remarkable. Note, however, that a lone wolf may well be influenced or motivated by the ideology and beliefs of an external group and may act in support of such a group.” [9]
LOTIE – “Ku Klux Klan abbreviation for a ‘Lady Of The Invisible Empire’ (i.e., a female Klan member).” [1]
Love Your Race – “White supremacist slogan originally popularised by the neo-Nazi National Alliance. In white supremacist literature and fliers, the phrase is often accompanied by an idealised image of a beautiful and/or maternal white woman.” [1]
LOTIE – “Ku Klux Klan abbreviation for a ‘Lady Of The Invisible Empire’ (i.e., a female Klan member).” [1]
Love Your Race – “White supremacist slogan originally popularised by the neo-Nazi National Alliance. In white supremacist literature and fliers, the phrase is often accompanied by an idealised image of a beautiful and/or maternal white woman.” [1]
M
Madrasa – “‘School’: A place of study, a school or college, including a school for religious studies.” [2]
Manhaj – “‘Method’: A religious methodology.” [2]
Martyr – “Individual who dies or suffers for his cause. The term is used in the context of certain extremist strains of Islam to describe an individual who dies carrying out a violent act of jihad – e.g., while in armed combat or by carrying out a terrorist attack.” [4]
Martyrdom – “Act of dying or suffering for one’s beliefs. In an extremist context, individuals may be willing to carry out terrorist attacks to pursue what they perceive as a state of martyrdom.” [4]
Masjid – Mosque. [2]
Meine ehre heisst treue – “German phrase that translates roughly to ‘My Honor Is Loyalty’. This phrase was used as a motto of the Waffen SS in Nazi Germany; as a result, many neo-Nazis and other white supremacists around the world use this German phrase, or English equivalent.” [1]
Mississippi Aryan Brotherhood – “Large racist prison gang based in the Mississippi state prison system. Despite the similarity of its name, it has no connection to the ‘original’ Aryan Brotherhood, based in California and the federal prison systems. The logo of the Mississippi Aryan Brotherhood consists of a highly-stylised rendition of a combined A and B.” [1]
Muhajir – Individual “who travels from his country of origin to terrorist-held territories, or to other territories governed by Islamic law.” [4]
Mujahid – “Muslim who undertake armed Jihad.” [2]
Mujoon – “Term used to describe places of disobedience which people attend to commit sins. This might include pubs and night-clubs, for example.” [2]
Murabit – “Muslim based in a Ribat.” [2]
Murtadd – “‘One who turns back’: Normally used to describe someone who has turned their back on Islam and become an apostate. Islamist extremists also use it to describe fellow Muslims who have engaged in acts that they believe to be fundamentally un- Islamic.” [2]
Mushrik – “‘An idol worshipper’ or polytheist. Often used by Islamist extremists as a catch-all derogatory term for any individual who does not follow Islam, or their particular form of Islam.” [2]
Manhaj – “‘Method’: A religious methodology.” [2]
Martyr – “Individual who dies or suffers for his cause. The term is used in the context of certain extremist strains of Islam to describe an individual who dies carrying out a violent act of jihad – e.g., while in armed combat or by carrying out a terrorist attack.” [4]
Martyrdom – “Act of dying or suffering for one’s beliefs. In an extremist context, individuals may be willing to carry out terrorist attacks to pursue what they perceive as a state of martyrdom.” [4]
Masjid – Mosque. [2]
Meine ehre heisst treue – “German phrase that translates roughly to ‘My Honor Is Loyalty’. This phrase was used as a motto of the Waffen SS in Nazi Germany; as a result, many neo-Nazis and other white supremacists around the world use this German phrase, or English equivalent.” [1]
Mississippi Aryan Brotherhood – “Large racist prison gang based in the Mississippi state prison system. Despite the similarity of its name, it has no connection to the ‘original’ Aryan Brotherhood, based in California and the federal prison systems. The logo of the Mississippi Aryan Brotherhood consists of a highly-stylised rendition of a combined A and B.” [1]
Muhajir – Individual “who travels from his country of origin to terrorist-held territories, or to other territories governed by Islamic law.” [4]
Mujahid – “Muslim who undertake armed Jihad.” [2]
Mujoon – “Term used to describe places of disobedience which people attend to commit sins. This might include pubs and night-clubs, for example.” [2]
Murabit – “Muslim based in a Ribat.” [2]
Murtadd – “‘One who turns back’: Normally used to describe someone who has turned their back on Islam and become an apostate. Islamist extremists also use it to describe fellow Muslims who have engaged in acts that they believe to be fundamentally un- Islamic.” [2]
Mushrik – “‘An idol worshipper’ or polytheist. Often used by Islamist extremists as a catch-all derogatory term for any individual who does not follow Islam, or their particular form of Islam.” [2]
N
Nabi – Prophet. [2]
National Alliance – “(It) was the largest neo-Nazi group in the United States in the 1990s but today is only a bare shadow of its former self.” [1]
National Rebirth of Poland – (Originally known as Narodowe Odrodzenie Polski, it) “is a Nazi-like right-wing extremist group based in Poland that has some followers in the United States.” [1]
National Socialist Movement – “Though relatively small, (it) is currently the largest neo-Nazi group in the United States.” [1]
Nazi Low Riders – “Racist prison gang based primarily in California; their most common symbol is simply the initials NLR, often displayed in an Old English-style script.” [1]
Nazism – “Form of fascism developed by Adolf Hitler’s National Socialist German Workers Party (Nazi Party) and the state it controlled in Germany and Europe from 1933 to 1945. Nazism was defined by a doctrine of Aryan racial supremacy, demonisation of the so-called Jewish-Bolshevik conspiracy, a program of German military conquest, and systematic genocide against Jews and other people considered racial enemies or racially inferior.” [15]
Neo-Fascism – “Political movement that seeks to establish a racially or ethnically homogeneous society under a leader entrusted with authoritarian power.” [4]
Neo-Nazism –
New Aryan Empire – “Arkansas-based white supremacist prison gang. Its most common symbols consist of its initials, NAE, as well as the number 234 (in either Latin or Roman numeral forms).” [1]
New Black Panther Party for Self Defense – “Most extreme organised racist and anti-Semitic African-American group in the United States. Its symbol consists of a leaping panther (an image appropriated from the original Black Panthers) superimposed over the continent of Africa. (It is) not related to the original Black Panther Party.” [1]
Non Silba Sed Anthar – “Ku Klux Klan slogan meaning ‘Not Self, But Others’. It is sometimes abbreviated as NSSA.” [1]
Northwest American Republic – “Fictional construct created by Harold Covington, a long-time fringe figure in the neo-Nazi movement. It is based on the so-called ‘Northwest Imperative’, a longstanding call by some white supremacists for white people to move to the Pacific Northwest and establish their own country.” [1]
National Alliance – “(It) was the largest neo-Nazi group in the United States in the 1990s but today is only a bare shadow of its former self.” [1]
National Rebirth of Poland – (Originally known as Narodowe Odrodzenie Polski, it) “is a Nazi-like right-wing extremist group based in Poland that has some followers in the United States.” [1]
National Socialist Movement – “Though relatively small, (it) is currently the largest neo-Nazi group in the United States.” [1]
Nazi Low Riders – “Racist prison gang based primarily in California; their most common symbol is simply the initials NLR, often displayed in an Old English-style script.” [1]
Nazism – “Form of fascism developed by Adolf Hitler’s National Socialist German Workers Party (Nazi Party) and the state it controlled in Germany and Europe from 1933 to 1945. Nazism was defined by a doctrine of Aryan racial supremacy, demonisation of the so-called Jewish-Bolshevik conspiracy, a program of German military conquest, and systematic genocide against Jews and other people considered racial enemies or racially inferior.” [15]
Neo-Fascism – “Political movement that seeks to establish a racially or ethnically homogeneous society under a leader entrusted with authoritarian power.” [4]
Neo-Nazism –
- “Movement that endorses the racist, fascist, xenophobic ideology of Nazi Germany. Neo-Nazis typically view Jews as their primary enemy.” [4]
- Movement that “describes various post-WWII political doctrines openly or secretly derived from Hitler’s ideology, including Christian Identity, the Third Position, National Alliance, Church of the Creator, and others.” [15]
New Aryan Empire – “Arkansas-based white supremacist prison gang. Its most common symbols consist of its initials, NAE, as well as the number 234 (in either Latin or Roman numeral forms).” [1]
New Black Panther Party for Self Defense – “Most extreme organised racist and anti-Semitic African-American group in the United States. Its symbol consists of a leaping panther (an image appropriated from the original Black Panthers) superimposed over the continent of Africa. (It is) not related to the original Black Panther Party.” [1]
Non Silba Sed Anthar – “Ku Klux Klan slogan meaning ‘Not Self, But Others’. It is sometimes abbreviated as NSSA.” [1]
Northwest American Republic – “Fictional construct created by Harold Covington, a long-time fringe figure in the neo-Nazi movement. It is based on the so-called ‘Northwest Imperative’, a longstanding call by some white supremacists for white people to move to the Pacific Northwest and establish their own country.” [1]
O
OFOF – “Acronym for the slogan ‘One Front, One Family’, utilised primarily by the white supremacist group Volksfront.” [1]
Ohio Aryan Brotherhood – “Longstanding white supremacist prison gang based in the Ohio prison system. Despite its name, it is an independent group and has no connection to the ‘original’ Aryan Brotherhood, based primarily in the California and federal prison systems.” [1]
Oklahoma Aryan Brotherhood – “One of several white supremacist prison gangs in the Oklahoma prison system whose name derives from the unrelated ‘original’ Aryan Brotherhood, which is based in the California and federal prison systems. Its patch is a shield on top of two lightning bolts and a sword, with a clover, a swastika, and SS bolts inside the shield.” [1]
Oppression –
Order – “The Order was an American white supremacist terrorist group from the early to mid-1980s which committed assassinations, armoured car robberies and bombings for several years before being brought down by law enforcement.” [1]
ORION – “Racist slogan (standing for ‘Our Race Is Our Nation’) proclaiming that racial ties are paramount to all else, transcending national borders or boundaries.” [1]
Othala Rune – “Part of several runic alphabet systems that were common in pre-Roman Europe. The Nazis adopted this rune, among others, into their symbology, causing it to be a favourite symbol among white supremacists ever since.” [1]
Ohio Aryan Brotherhood – “Longstanding white supremacist prison gang based in the Ohio prison system. Despite its name, it is an independent group and has no connection to the ‘original’ Aryan Brotherhood, based primarily in the California and federal prison systems.” [1]
Oklahoma Aryan Brotherhood – “One of several white supremacist prison gangs in the Oklahoma prison system whose name derives from the unrelated ‘original’ Aryan Brotherhood, which is based in the California and federal prison systems. Its patch is a shield on top of two lightning bolts and a sword, with a clover, a swastika, and SS bolts inside the shield.” [1]
Oppression –
- “A systematic form of discrimination that is generated when institutions or structures in a society maintain hierarchies of power and privilege that weighs down or subjugates a specific group. Oppression can (actually) be subtle and relatively invisible to the mainstream society (…). Racism, sexism, heterosexism, and classism are the major forms of oppression in the U.S., but there are others based on ability, language, ethnicity, immigrant status, size, religion, and more. Oppression is systematic and occurs as the result of a dynamic process involving ideas, acts, and a hierarchical position of dominance. This dominance involves both power and privilege. The resulting formula for oppression is as follows: supremacist ideology + discrimination + power/privilege = oppression. Oppression as a system is built on a foundation of internal, interpersonal, and institutional forms of supremacy and subjugation.” [15]
- “Oppression is generated when supremacy has power, and this power can exist on an individual and societal level, and when societal, may be institutionalised in customs and norms, or even codified in laws.” [24]
Order – “The Order was an American white supremacist terrorist group from the early to mid-1980s which committed assassinations, armoured car robberies and bombings for several years before being brought down by law enforcement.” [1]
ORION – “Racist slogan (standing for ‘Our Race Is Our Nation’) proclaiming that racial ties are paramount to all else, transcending national borders or boundaries.” [1]
Othala Rune – “Part of several runic alphabet systems that were common in pre-Roman Europe. The Nazis adopted this rune, among others, into their symbology, causing it to be a favourite symbol among white supremacists ever since.” [1]
P
PBUH – “Acronym for ‘Peace Be Upon Him’: A blessing which is affixed to the Prophet Muhammad’s name whenever it is written in English.” [2]
Peckerwood – “Derived from an old racial epithet aimed at whites, has evolved to become a term used to refer to white prisoners, particular white prisoners belonging to the racist prison gang subculture. Often the term is shortened to ‘wood’ and all such prisoners in a particular prison might be referred to as the ‘Woodpile’. (Its) hand sign consists of forming the thumb, index finger and middle finger of one hand to form the letter ‘P’, and the four fingers of the other hand to form the letter ‘W’.” [1]
Peckerwood Midwest – “White supremacist gang based primarily in Missouri, active both in prisons and on the streets. The gang's "patch" tattoo consists of a diamond-shaped swastika inside a larger Iron Cross. Inside the swastika are SS bolts; outside the Iron Cross are the numbers 23/16.” [1]
PENI – Standing for Public Enemy Number 1 it “is a large white supremacist gang based in the prisons and on the streets of California. Its most common symbol is simply a shortened version of its own name, such as PENI or PEN1. Members may also refer to the gang as the Peni Death Squad or PDS, thus PDS is also a common tattoo.” [1]
Phineas Priesthood (or Phinehas Priesthood) – “Concept created by the racist and anti-Semitic religious sect known as Christian Identity and refers to self-appointed "holy warriors" in the Christian Identity cause.” [1]
Political extremism – “The will to power by a social movement in the service of a political programme typically at variance with that supported by existing state authorities, and for which individual liberties are to be curtailed in the name of collective goals, including the mass murder of those who would actually or potentially disagree with that programme. Restrictions on individual freedom in the interests of the collectively and the willingness to kill massively are central to this definition.” [25]
Populism – “A style of organising that involves an effort to mobilise “the people” into a social or political movement around some form of anti-elitism. Populist movements can be on the right, the left, or in the centre. They can be egalitarian or authoritarian, inclusive or exclusionary, forward-looking or fixated on a romanticised image of the past. They can either challenge or reinforce systems of oppression.” [15]
Prejudice – “The preconceived formation of negative or hostile views toward a person or group of persons based on ignorance, stereotyping, or other filter of bigotry.
Prejudice can be unconscious or conscious, and any set of prejudiced ideas may be transformed into an ideological viewpoint.” [15]
Pre-radicalisation – The individual’s motivation/conversion either to Islam or to a more conservative version of Islam. This stage focuses on venues where a person might have an opportunity to undertake such a conversion. [26]
Prison radicalisation – “The process by which inmates who do not invite or plan overt terrorist acts adopt extreme views, including beliefs that violent measures need to be taken for political or religious purposes” (U.S. Department of Justice, 2004). [27]
Peckerwood – “Derived from an old racial epithet aimed at whites, has evolved to become a term used to refer to white prisoners, particular white prisoners belonging to the racist prison gang subculture. Often the term is shortened to ‘wood’ and all such prisoners in a particular prison might be referred to as the ‘Woodpile’. (Its) hand sign consists of forming the thumb, index finger and middle finger of one hand to form the letter ‘P’, and the four fingers of the other hand to form the letter ‘W’.” [1]
Peckerwood Midwest – “White supremacist gang based primarily in Missouri, active both in prisons and on the streets. The gang's "patch" tattoo consists of a diamond-shaped swastika inside a larger Iron Cross. Inside the swastika are SS bolts; outside the Iron Cross are the numbers 23/16.” [1]
PENI – Standing for Public Enemy Number 1 it “is a large white supremacist gang based in the prisons and on the streets of California. Its most common symbol is simply a shortened version of its own name, such as PENI or PEN1. Members may also refer to the gang as the Peni Death Squad or PDS, thus PDS is also a common tattoo.” [1]
Phineas Priesthood (or Phinehas Priesthood) – “Concept created by the racist and anti-Semitic religious sect known as Christian Identity and refers to self-appointed "holy warriors" in the Christian Identity cause.” [1]
Political extremism – “The will to power by a social movement in the service of a political programme typically at variance with that supported by existing state authorities, and for which individual liberties are to be curtailed in the name of collective goals, including the mass murder of those who would actually or potentially disagree with that programme. Restrictions on individual freedom in the interests of the collectively and the willingness to kill massively are central to this definition.” [25]
Populism – “A style of organising that involves an effort to mobilise “the people” into a social or political movement around some form of anti-elitism. Populist movements can be on the right, the left, or in the centre. They can be egalitarian or authoritarian, inclusive or exclusionary, forward-looking or fixated on a romanticised image of the past. They can either challenge or reinforce systems of oppression.” [15]
Prejudice – “The preconceived formation of negative or hostile views toward a person or group of persons based on ignorance, stereotyping, or other filter of bigotry.
Prejudice can be unconscious or conscious, and any set of prejudiced ideas may be transformed into an ideological viewpoint.” [15]
Pre-radicalisation – The individual’s motivation/conversion either to Islam or to a more conservative version of Islam. This stage focuses on venues where a person might have an opportunity to undertake such a conversion. [26]
Prison radicalisation – “The process by which inmates who do not invite or plan overt terrorist acts adopt extreme views, including beliefs that violent measures need to be taken for political or religious purposes” (U.S. Department of Justice, 2004). [27]
Q
Qiblah – “The direction of prayer toward Mecca.” [2]
Qisas – “‘Retaliation’: Islamic law allows for retaliation in the bounds of justice for those who are wronged. Many Islamist extremists use this as a justification for violence against the West.” [2]
Qutbism – “Pan-Islamic ideology founded by Muslim Brotherhood ideologue Sayyid Qutb. Qutb’s ideology has spawned or inspired numerous Islamic extremist groups and leaders, including al-Qaeda founder Ayman al-Zawahiri. Qutbism supports a policy of violent jihad against all established governments until non-Muslims either convert to Islam or pay a religious tax, called ‘jizya’.” [4]
Qisas – “‘Retaliation’: Islamic law allows for retaliation in the bounds of justice for those who are wronged. Many Islamist extremists use this as a justification for violence against the West.” [2]
Qutbism – “Pan-Islamic ideology founded by Muslim Brotherhood ideologue Sayyid Qutb. Qutb’s ideology has spawned or inspired numerous Islamic extremist groups and leaders, including al-Qaeda founder Ayman al-Zawahiri. Qutbism supports a policy of violent jihad against all established governments until non-Muslims either convert to Islam or pay a religious tax, called ‘jizya’.” [4]
R
Racial discrimination – “According to the UN International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the term ‘racial discrimination’ shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life”. Note that the term being defined is not ‘racism’ but ‘racial discrimination’. (In conclusion), the UN definition separates the idea from the act.” [15]
Racialism – “An ideology that elevates the social construction of racial difference to a primary place in human relations. While existing in theory as an ideology that is not supremacist, is rooted in pseudo-scientific theories of race. It can be used cautiously to point out specific distinctions and nuance in discussions of race and racism.” [15]
Racism –
Radical –
Radical Islam – “A term used to describe forms of Islamic belief and practice that fall outside the norms of ‘mainstream’ Islamic practice, usually of an overtly political or behaviourally conservative nature.” [2]
Radicalisation –
Rafidah – “‘Rejectionists’: Derogatory term used by some Sunnis to describe Shi’a. It refers to the Shi’a rejection of the first three Caliphs.” [2]
Rahowa – Expression or term linked to far-right extremist ideology. It “stands for the expression ‘Racial Holy War’. It signifies the battle that white supremacists believe will pit the white race against minorities and Jews and lead to Aryan rule over the world.” [32]
Religious terrorism –
RAN – Radicalisation Awareness Network is a network that brings together frontline or grassroot practitioners involved in the subject of radicalisation prevention and violent extremism through Europe. Practitioners include police and prison authorities, but also the non-traditionally actors involved in counter-terrorism, such as teachers, youth workers, civil society representatives, local authorities’ representatives and healthcare professionals. There are several working groups within RAN, but there’s a need to highlight the Prison and Probation Group that seeks to support practitioners in the prison and probation sector who have a role in preventing radicalisation. [35]
Repression – “(As) a subset of oppression, repression occurs when public or private institutions - such as law enforcement agencies or vigilante groups - use arrest, physical coercion, or violence to subjugate a specific group.” [15]
Returning foreign terrorist fighters – Those “who enter foreign conflicts (and) survive, (going) back to their homeland or the countries they lived in before, thus becoming returning foreign fighters. This has been a concern for decades - in the 1980s and 1990s many Arab states had to contend with young and radicalised “Arab Afghans” returning from the fight against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan.” [9]
Revert – “Term used to refer to individuals who convert to Islam. The term comes from a belief that all people are born Muslim, but are led astray from their natural religion by their upbringing.” [2]
Ribat – “‘Fort’, or ‘base’: Historically, a small fortification at the edge of Islamic territory garrisoned by volunteers engaged in defending Islam from external threats. Islamist extremists use it as a term to refer to the act of defensive violent Jihad.” [2]
ROA – “Acronym for the white supremacist slogan ‘’Race Over All’, popularised by the neo-Nazi/racist skinhead gang Volksfront.” [1]
Rock Against Communism (or RAC) – “Euphemism for several types of white supremacist hate music.” [1]
Runic alphabets (or writing) – “Pre-Roman alphabets used widely across Europe, easily recognisable because of their angular characters. White supremacists to use runic letters to portray words of significance to the white supremacist cause, on clothing or as tattoos. Because runes are still commonly used in a variety of non-racist forms, their appearance should always be carefully analysed in context.” [1]
Racialism – “An ideology that elevates the social construction of racial difference to a primary place in human relations. While existing in theory as an ideology that is not supremacist, is rooted in pseudo-scientific theories of race. It can be used cautiously to point out specific distinctions and nuance in discussions of race and racism.” [15]
Racism –
- “Belief that particular races are superior to others and that a person’s intelligence and moral capacity may be determined by his or her race.” [4]
- “Ideology that assumes a hierarchy of human worth based on the social construction of racial difference. Racism as an ideology was developed to claim superiority of White people over people of colour based on the false idea that race is a fixed and immutable reality. The overwhelming reality of racism in the U.S. is White supremacy, which uses racism to rationalise the oppression of people of colour. While racism as a belief system in the U.S. can exist anecdotally among people of colour (sometimes as a backlash response to oppression) it is not an equivalent phenomenon, and it does not create oppression. Racism + discrimination + power/privilege = racial oppression. The overwhelmingly hegemonic form of racism in the U.S. is White supremacy, but other forms exist in other countries. Sometimes the term racism is used to describe the entire system of racial oppression or aspects of that system. In this larger context, racism can refer to forms that are internal, interpersonal, institutional, or systemic. The term racist ideology describes ideas, while the term racial discrimination describes acts.” [15]
Radical –
- Individual who represents or supports an extreme section of a party. In this sense, the term may be used as a synonym for ‘‘extremist,’’ and in opposition to ‘‘moderate.’’ It serves the useful purpose of indicating a relative position on a continuum of organised opinion. [28]
- “Individual(s) or group(s) becoming intolerant regarding basic democratic values like equality and diversity, as well as a rising propensity towards using means of force to reach political goals that negate and/or undermine democracy.” [29]
Radical Islam – “A term used to describe forms of Islamic belief and practice that fall outside the norms of ‘mainstream’ Islamic practice, usually of an overtly political or behaviourally conservative nature.” [2]
Radicalisation –
- “Dynamic process whereby an individual increasingly accepts and supports violent extremism. The reasons behind this process can be ideological, political, religious, social, economic or personal.” [30]
- “Process involving significant change in an individual’s or group’s orienting beliefs and motivations. Through processes of radicalisation some people will come to assume an extremist viewpoint, wherein they are willing to countenance or enact violence in pursuit of their goals.” [31]
Rafidah – “‘Rejectionists’: Derogatory term used by some Sunnis to describe Shi’a. It refers to the Shi’a rejection of the first three Caliphs.” [2]
Rahowa – Expression or term linked to far-right extremist ideology. It “stands for the expression ‘Racial Holy War’. It signifies the battle that white supremacists believe will pit the white race against minorities and Jews and lead to Aryan rule over the world.” [32]
Religious terrorism –
- “Type of political violence motivated by an absolute belief that an otherworldly power has sanctioned—and commanded—terrorist violence for the greater glory of the faith. Acts committed in the name of the faith will be forgiven by the otherworldly power and perhaps rewarded in an afterlife. In essence, one’s religious faith legitimises violence as long as such violence is an expression of the will of one’s deity.” [33]
- Type of terrorism “usually centred on fanaticism. Religious fanaticism is an extreme sense of ideological zeal complemented by a focused and unrelenting set of activities that express the high dedication of one or more people to their own belief system(s).” [34]
RAN – Radicalisation Awareness Network is a network that brings together frontline or grassroot practitioners involved in the subject of radicalisation prevention and violent extremism through Europe. Practitioners include police and prison authorities, but also the non-traditionally actors involved in counter-terrorism, such as teachers, youth workers, civil society representatives, local authorities’ representatives and healthcare professionals. There are several working groups within RAN, but there’s a need to highlight the Prison and Probation Group that seeks to support practitioners in the prison and probation sector who have a role in preventing radicalisation. [35]
Repression – “(As) a subset of oppression, repression occurs when public or private institutions - such as law enforcement agencies or vigilante groups - use arrest, physical coercion, or violence to subjugate a specific group.” [15]
Returning foreign terrorist fighters – Those “who enter foreign conflicts (and) survive, (going) back to their homeland or the countries they lived in before, thus becoming returning foreign fighters. This has been a concern for decades - in the 1980s and 1990s many Arab states had to contend with young and radicalised “Arab Afghans” returning from the fight against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan.” [9]
Revert – “Term used to refer to individuals who convert to Islam. The term comes from a belief that all people are born Muslim, but are led astray from their natural religion by their upbringing.” [2]
Ribat – “‘Fort’, or ‘base’: Historically, a small fortification at the edge of Islamic territory garrisoned by volunteers engaged in defending Islam from external threats. Islamist extremists use it as a term to refer to the act of defensive violent Jihad.” [2]
ROA – “Acronym for the white supremacist slogan ‘’Race Over All’, popularised by the neo-Nazi/racist skinhead gang Volksfront.” [1]
Rock Against Communism (or RAC) – “Euphemism for several types of white supremacist hate music.” [1]
Runic alphabets (or writing) – “Pre-Roman alphabets used widely across Europe, easily recognisable because of their angular characters. White supremacists to use runic letters to portray words of significance to the white supremacist cause, on clothing or as tattoos. Because runes are still commonly used in a variety of non-racist forms, their appearance should always be carefully analysed in context.” [1]
S
Sacred Separatist Group (SSG) – “Missouri-based white supremacist prison gang. The group's ‘patch’ tattoo consists of a shield over a crossed sword and battleaxe, with the initials SSG inside. Typically, the letters SS in those initials are rendered as lightning bolts.” [1]
Sadistic Souls – “Small white supremacist outlaw biker gang active primarily in the Midwest. It is also a faction of the neo-Nazi group Aryan Nations. Sadistic Souls members may sport Aryan Nations symbology, as well as biker jackets and rockers that depict a Totenkopf image and the group's name, with the first ‘S’ in each word of its name rendered as lightning bolts.” [1]
Salafism – “The puritan approach to Islam, often very conservative, that attempts to emulate what is understood to have been the way the Prophet Muhammad and the early Muslims practised their religion. May be used as a term of abuse by non-Salafi Muslims.” [2]
Salafism-Jihadism – The Salafism-Jihadism is a current of a broader movement – the Salafism – whose general goal is to create a pure society, to apply a literal interpretation of the Quran, and adhere to the social practices that prevailed until the seventh century. The implementation of Shari’ah and the re-establishment of the global caliphate are its main political objectives. The Salafist movement manifests itself in very different forms, standing out the jihadist faction, which believes that violence (and armed struggle or jihad) can be used to achieve its goals. [36]
Salat – “The daily act of worship, consisting of five prayers, carried out at specific times from sunrise to early evening.” [2]
Saxon Knights – “Large, Indiana-based white supremacist prison gang. Their primary symbol is a shield tattoo, with a shield emblem superimposed over a sword, a warhammer, and a battleaxe. The shield has four sections, two of which include the letters ‘S’ and ‘K’. A third section usually contains a knight's helmet. The fourth section is sometimes left blank and sometimes contains one of a number of other symbols.” [1]
SAW – “Acronym for the Arabic phrase ‘Sallallahu alayhi wa sallam’ meaning ‘May Allah bless him and grant him peace’. The expression is used by many Muslims after stating the Prophet Muhammad’s name.” [2]
Sexism –
Sham – “‘The Left/North’: Greater Syria, which historically covered modern Syria, as well as Israel, Lebanon, and parts of Jordan and southern Turkey. Islamist extremists tend to use it to refer to Syria and Lebanon.” [2]
Shaheed – “‘Witness’: In Islamic thought, the term for martyr. Used by Islamist extremists and Jihadis to describe an individual who has died in pursuing the goals of movement.” [2]
Shari’ah – Islamic canonical law based on the teachings of the Quran and the traditions of the Prophet (Hadith and Sunna), prescribing not only religious and secular duties but also (at times) retributive penalties for lawbreaking. It has generally been supplemented by legislation and adapted to be applied in modern states. [37]
Shaytan – “Arabic word for ‘devil’. Extremists have at times used the term as a pejorative for their political opponents.” [4]
Sheikh – “‘Old man’: In religious terms an appellation of respect for an Islamic religious leader or scholar.” [2]
Shia – “‘Party’ or ‘sect’: The term applies to a number of groups or divisions within Islam that believe that temporal and spiritual authority passed from the Prophet Muhammad to his immediate descendants. The Shia make up less than 20% of the worldwide Muslim population, primarily located in Iran, Iraq, and the Levant. They differ from the main Sunni population over a number of matters of doctrine, and are disliked by many religiously conservative Sunni Muslims.” [2]
Shirk – “‘Association’: The sin of granting something or someone powers that belong only to God. The basis of polytheism, it is the one sin that, in Islam, God will never forgive.” [2]
Shura – “‘Consultation’: For Islamists, a term used to describe the process of popular consultation used in decision making instead of democracy. Hence, Shura Council.” [2]
Sieg Heil – “German phrase that translates to ‘Hail Victory’. The Nazi Party in Germany adopted the phrase, which became one of its most widely used and notorious slogans. As a result, after World War II, white supremacists in Europe, North America, and elsewhere adopted the phrase as well.” [1]
Silent Aryan Warriors (SAW) – “Large white supremacist gang based in Utah. Their primary tattoo consists of an Iron Cross with SS lightning bolts and a curved swastika at the centre. Four Totenkopfs surround the Iron Cross, while around the image are the German phrases ‘für immer weiss’ and ‘für immer stolz’, which translate to ‘forever white’ and ‘forever proud’.” [1]
SJW – “Short for ‘Social Justice Warrior’ and is used by the right as an epithet for someone who advocates liberal causes like feminism, racial justice or gay and transgender rights. It is also sometimes used to imply that a person’s online advocacy of a cause is insincere or done for appearances. It became widely used during ‘GamerGate’, a controversy that began in 2014 over sexism in video game subcultures. (One specialist actually said that) the right used the phrase ‘to rhetorically address the fact that the left sometimes calls anyone who disagrees with it Nazis’. He said the alt-right had created the term so its followers had a similar blanket term to deride the left.” [3]
Skrewdriver – “British white power music band that essentially created white power music as a genre. The band, and its deceased leader, Ian Stuart Donaldson, remain held in the highest esteem by white supremacists.” [1]
Soldiers of Aryan Culture (SAC) – “Large Utah-based white supremacist prison gang. The two symbols most commonly used by the gang are the group's initials (i.e., SAC), and a swastika interwoven with an Iron Cross.” [1]
Solid Wood Soldiers – “Texas-based white supremacist prison gang. Their primary tattoo consists of the initials SWS, with the two S's represented by lightning bolts. Above the initials appears the image of a bear claw, with the number 4 in the middle and sometimes the letters HCRL.” [1]
Special-interest extremism – “Form of violent extremism focused on changing attitudes on specific issues - such as animal rights, environmentalism, or pro-life ideology - rather than a wider societal shift”, such as the Animal Liberation Front or the Earth Liberation Front. [4]
Southern Brotherhood – “Large, Alabama-based white supremacist prison gang. Gang members use a variety of different symbols and tattoos but the most common is their "patch" or shield tattoo. This tattoo consists of a shield emblem (often superimposed over axes or swords) divided into four sections, each with a different symbol inside.” [1]
Stormfront – “Oldest and largest white supremacist website on the Internet. Its logo consists of a squarish Celtic Cross encircled by the phrase ‘White Pride World Wide’.” [1]
Sufism – “Islamic mysticism. The practices of Sufism are regarded by Salafi Muslims as un-Islamic, and are scorned. Islamist extremists share this view, and in some countries have attacked the shrines and graves of Sufi saints. Sufis may be Sunni or Shia.” [2]
Sunnah – “‘Customary procedure, well-followed path’: In religious terms, the habits and ways of the Prophet Muhammad, which are regarded as the example which all Muslims should follow.” [2]
Sunni – “‘Followers of the Sunnah’: The form of Islam practiced by the majority of the world’s Muslims. Not Shia.” [2]
Supremacy – “A set of beliefs whereby one group is deemed superior to another and thus justified in assuming a dominant hierarchical relationship. Prejudice facilitates supremacy, but they are distinct, though linked, phenomena. Racism, sexism, heterosexism, and antisemitism are the major forms of supremacy in the U.S., but there are others based on ability, language, ethnicity, immigrant status, size, religion, and more.” [15]
Supreme White Alliance (SWA) – “Hardcore racist skinhead gang based primarily in the Midwest. The gang has used a variety of symbols but the most common include a shield symbol with a laurel wreath and a dog or wolf; and a shield symbol containing a Wolfsangel, a Triskele and the number 43.” [1]
Surah – “A chapter, specifically one of the 114 chapters that make up the Qur’an.” [2]
SWT – “Acronym for the Arabic phrase ‘Subhanahu wa ta’ala’ meaning ‘Highly praised and glorified is He’, the expression used to follow saying or writing the name of ‘Allah’.” [2]
SWP – “Acronym for the white supremacist slogan ‘Supreme White Power’. It seems to have originated on the West Coast, probably in California's prison system.” [1]
Sadistic Souls – “Small white supremacist outlaw biker gang active primarily in the Midwest. It is also a faction of the neo-Nazi group Aryan Nations. Sadistic Souls members may sport Aryan Nations symbology, as well as biker jackets and rockers that depict a Totenkopf image and the group's name, with the first ‘S’ in each word of its name rendered as lightning bolts.” [1]
Salafism – “The puritan approach to Islam, often very conservative, that attempts to emulate what is understood to have been the way the Prophet Muhammad and the early Muslims practised their religion. May be used as a term of abuse by non-Salafi Muslims.” [2]
Salafism-Jihadism – The Salafism-Jihadism is a current of a broader movement – the Salafism – whose general goal is to create a pure society, to apply a literal interpretation of the Quran, and adhere to the social practices that prevailed until the seventh century. The implementation of Shari’ah and the re-establishment of the global caliphate are its main political objectives. The Salafist movement manifests itself in very different forms, standing out the jihadist faction, which believes that violence (and armed struggle or jihad) can be used to achieve its goals. [36]
Salat – “The daily act of worship, consisting of five prayers, carried out at specific times from sunrise to early evening.” [2]
Saxon Knights – “Large, Indiana-based white supremacist prison gang. Their primary symbol is a shield tattoo, with a shield emblem superimposed over a sword, a warhammer, and a battleaxe. The shield has four sections, two of which include the letters ‘S’ and ‘K’. A third section usually contains a knight's helmet. The fourth section is sometimes left blank and sometimes contains one of a number of other symbols.” [1]
SAW – “Acronym for the Arabic phrase ‘Sallallahu alayhi wa sallam’ meaning ‘May Allah bless him and grant him peace’. The expression is used by many Muslims after stating the Prophet Muhammad’s name.” [2]
Sexism –
- “Ingrained belief in the superiority of one sex or gender over another. Sexism may manifest in misogyny, prejudice, and implicit or explicit forms of discrimination.” [4]
- “Ideology that assumes a hierarchy of human worth based on the social construction of gender difference Sexism was developed to claim superiority of men over women, based on the idea that ‘natural’ gender norms are a fixed and immutable reality. The overwhelming reality of sexism in the U.S. is male supremacy, which uses sexism to rationalise the oppression of women. While sexism as a belief system in the U.S. can exist anecdotally among women (sometimes as a backlash response to oppression) it is not an equivalent phenomenon, and it does not create oppression. Sexism + discrimination + power/privilege = gender oppression. Sometimes the term sexism is used to describe the entire system of gender oppression. In this larger context, sexism can refer to forms that are internal, interpersonal, institutional, or systemic. The term sexist ideology describes ideas, while the term gender discrimination describes acts.” [15]
Sham – “‘The Left/North’: Greater Syria, which historically covered modern Syria, as well as Israel, Lebanon, and parts of Jordan and southern Turkey. Islamist extremists tend to use it to refer to Syria and Lebanon.” [2]
Shaheed – “‘Witness’: In Islamic thought, the term for martyr. Used by Islamist extremists and Jihadis to describe an individual who has died in pursuing the goals of movement.” [2]
Shari’ah – Islamic canonical law based on the teachings of the Quran and the traditions of the Prophet (Hadith and Sunna), prescribing not only religious and secular duties but also (at times) retributive penalties for lawbreaking. It has generally been supplemented by legislation and adapted to be applied in modern states. [37]
Shaytan – “Arabic word for ‘devil’. Extremists have at times used the term as a pejorative for their political opponents.” [4]
Sheikh – “‘Old man’: In religious terms an appellation of respect for an Islamic religious leader or scholar.” [2]
Shia – “‘Party’ or ‘sect’: The term applies to a number of groups or divisions within Islam that believe that temporal and spiritual authority passed from the Prophet Muhammad to his immediate descendants. The Shia make up less than 20% of the worldwide Muslim population, primarily located in Iran, Iraq, and the Levant. They differ from the main Sunni population over a number of matters of doctrine, and are disliked by many religiously conservative Sunni Muslims.” [2]
Shirk – “‘Association’: The sin of granting something or someone powers that belong only to God. The basis of polytheism, it is the one sin that, in Islam, God will never forgive.” [2]
Shura – “‘Consultation’: For Islamists, a term used to describe the process of popular consultation used in decision making instead of democracy. Hence, Shura Council.” [2]
Sieg Heil – “German phrase that translates to ‘Hail Victory’. The Nazi Party in Germany adopted the phrase, which became one of its most widely used and notorious slogans. As a result, after World War II, white supremacists in Europe, North America, and elsewhere adopted the phrase as well.” [1]
Silent Aryan Warriors (SAW) – “Large white supremacist gang based in Utah. Their primary tattoo consists of an Iron Cross with SS lightning bolts and a curved swastika at the centre. Four Totenkopfs surround the Iron Cross, while around the image are the German phrases ‘für immer weiss’ and ‘für immer stolz’, which translate to ‘forever white’ and ‘forever proud’.” [1]
SJW – “Short for ‘Social Justice Warrior’ and is used by the right as an epithet for someone who advocates liberal causes like feminism, racial justice or gay and transgender rights. It is also sometimes used to imply that a person’s online advocacy of a cause is insincere or done for appearances. It became widely used during ‘GamerGate’, a controversy that began in 2014 over sexism in video game subcultures. (One specialist actually said that) the right used the phrase ‘to rhetorically address the fact that the left sometimes calls anyone who disagrees with it Nazis’. He said the alt-right had created the term so its followers had a similar blanket term to deride the left.” [3]
Skrewdriver – “British white power music band that essentially created white power music as a genre. The band, and its deceased leader, Ian Stuart Donaldson, remain held in the highest esteem by white supremacists.” [1]
Soldiers of Aryan Culture (SAC) – “Large Utah-based white supremacist prison gang. The two symbols most commonly used by the gang are the group's initials (i.e., SAC), and a swastika interwoven with an Iron Cross.” [1]
Solid Wood Soldiers – “Texas-based white supremacist prison gang. Their primary tattoo consists of the initials SWS, with the two S's represented by lightning bolts. Above the initials appears the image of a bear claw, with the number 4 in the middle and sometimes the letters HCRL.” [1]
Special-interest extremism – “Form of violent extremism focused on changing attitudes on specific issues - such as animal rights, environmentalism, or pro-life ideology - rather than a wider societal shift”, such as the Animal Liberation Front or the Earth Liberation Front. [4]
Southern Brotherhood – “Large, Alabama-based white supremacist prison gang. Gang members use a variety of different symbols and tattoos but the most common is their "patch" or shield tattoo. This tattoo consists of a shield emblem (often superimposed over axes or swords) divided into four sections, each with a different symbol inside.” [1]
Stormfront – “Oldest and largest white supremacist website on the Internet. Its logo consists of a squarish Celtic Cross encircled by the phrase ‘White Pride World Wide’.” [1]
Sufism – “Islamic mysticism. The practices of Sufism are regarded by Salafi Muslims as un-Islamic, and are scorned. Islamist extremists share this view, and in some countries have attacked the shrines and graves of Sufi saints. Sufis may be Sunni or Shia.” [2]
Sunnah – “‘Customary procedure, well-followed path’: In religious terms, the habits and ways of the Prophet Muhammad, which are regarded as the example which all Muslims should follow.” [2]
Sunni – “‘Followers of the Sunnah’: The form of Islam practiced by the majority of the world’s Muslims. Not Shia.” [2]
Supremacy – “A set of beliefs whereby one group is deemed superior to another and thus justified in assuming a dominant hierarchical relationship. Prejudice facilitates supremacy, but they are distinct, though linked, phenomena. Racism, sexism, heterosexism, and antisemitism are the major forms of supremacy in the U.S., but there are others based on ability, language, ethnicity, immigrant status, size, religion, and more.” [15]
Supreme White Alliance (SWA) – “Hardcore racist skinhead gang based primarily in the Midwest. The gang has used a variety of symbols but the most common include a shield symbol with a laurel wreath and a dog or wolf; and a shield symbol containing a Wolfsangel, a Triskele and the number 43.” [1]
Surah – “A chapter, specifically one of the 114 chapters that make up the Qur’an.” [2]
SWT – “Acronym for the Arabic phrase ‘Subhanahu wa ta’ala’ meaning ‘Highly praised and glorified is He’, the expression used to follow saying or writing the name of ‘Allah’.” [2]
SWP – “Acronym for the white supremacist slogan ‘Supreme White Power’. It seems to have originated on the West Coast, probably in California's prison system.” [1]
T
Taghut – “‘Idol’: A religious, derogatory term used to describe anything worshipped other than God. Used by Islamist extremists as a term of abuse for tyrants and oppressors, it has been used as a derogatory term for Western democracy which extremists see as a form of religion rather than a political system.” [2]
Takfir – “‘To declare someone an unbeliever’: To condemn a Muslim or Muslims as infidels/apostates. Takfiri is used as a pejorative term to describe Islamist extremists.” [2]
Tawhid – “‘Unity’: The concept of the oneness of God. This concept is one of the most central in Islam, and its details are widely debated by Islamic scholars. Extremists use the extension of tawhid into the political sphere to justify the rejection of concepts such as democracy.” [2]
Tazkiya – “‘Recommendation’: While having an overtly religious meaning ‘Tazkiya al-Nafs’ (‘Purification of the Self’), in Islamist extremist terms it means having a trusted individual vouch for you, or reference you, when travelling in a conflict zone. This may be required to pass vetting processes.” [2]
Terrorism –
Terrorist – Individual who participates in doing, planning or financing violent acts targeting people. [28]
Theocracy – “A system where the only appropriate political leaders are persons who see themselves as devoted to carrying out the will of God as interpreted by a common religion.” [15]
Traditionalist Youth Network – “Small white supremacist group that attempts white supremacist activities on college campuses. Its logo consists of five arrows pointing up and outwards from a single spot.” [1]
Takfir – “‘To declare someone an unbeliever’: To condemn a Muslim or Muslims as infidels/apostates. Takfiri is used as a pejorative term to describe Islamist extremists.” [2]
Tawhid – “‘Unity’: The concept of the oneness of God. This concept is one of the most central in Islam, and its details are widely debated by Islamic scholars. Extremists use the extension of tawhid into the political sphere to justify the rejection of concepts such as democracy.” [2]
Tazkiya – “‘Recommendation’: While having an overtly religious meaning ‘Tazkiya al-Nafs’ (‘Purification of the Self’), in Islamist extremist terms it means having a trusted individual vouch for you, or reference you, when travelling in a conflict zone. This may be required to pass vetting processes.” [2]
Terrorism –
- “All criminal acts directed against a State and intended or calculated to create a state of terror in the minds of particular persons or a group of persons or the general public.” [38]
- “The use or the threat of the use of violence, a method of combat, or a strategy to achieve certain targets… It aims to induce a state of fear in the victim, that is ruthless and does not conform with humanitarian rules… Publicity is an essential factor in the terrorist strategy.” [39]
- “Anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-) clandestine individual, group, or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal, or political reasons, whereby - in contrast to assassination - the direct targets of violence are not the main targets. The immediate human victims of violence are generally chosen randomly (targets of opportunity) or selectively (representative or symbolic targets) from a target population, and serve as message generators. Threat - and violence - based communication processes between terrorist (organisation), (imperilled) victims, and main target (audiences(s)), turning it into a target of terror, a target of demands, or a target of attention, depending on whether intimidation, coercion, or propaganda is primarily sought.” [40]
- Act that is “ineluctably political in aims and motives, violent—or, equally important, threatens violence, designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim or target, conducted by an organisation with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell structure (whose members wear no uniform or identifying insignia), and perpetrated by a sub-national group or non-state entity.” [41]
- “Use of violence to create fear (i.e., terror, psychic fear) for (1) political, (2) religious, or (3) ideological reasons (ideologies are systems of belief derived from worldviews that frame human social and political conditions). The terror is intentionally aimed at non-combatant targets (i.e., civilians or iconic symbols), and the objective is to achieve the greatest attainable publicity for a group, cause, or individual. The meaning of terrorism is socially constructed.” [34]
Terrorist – Individual who participates in doing, planning or financing violent acts targeting people. [28]
Theocracy – “A system where the only appropriate political leaders are persons who see themselves as devoted to carrying out the will of God as interpreted by a common religion.” [15]
Traditionalist Youth Network – “Small white supremacist group that attempts white supremacist activities on college campuses. Its logo consists of five arrows pointing up and outwards from a single spot.” [1]
U
Ulama – “‘Persons of knowledge’: Religious scholars.” [2]
Ummah – “The general worldwide community of all Muslims.” [2]
Unforgiven – “Large white supremacist prison gang based in the Florida prison system. Their main symbol consists of an interlocking Iron Cross and swastika, with SS lightning bolts in the centre.” [1]
Universal Aryan Brotherhood – “White supremacist prison gang based in the Oklahoma prison system, one of several such gangs that have used ‘brotherhood’ in their title. Despite the gang's name, it has no connection to the original Aryan Brotherhood, which is based in the California and federal prison systems.” [1]
United Society of Aryan Skinheads (USAS) – “White supremacist gang active in the prisons and on the streets. Although it originated in Oregon, it is essentially based in California. USAS members primarily use one or more of three symbols: the white power fist, the Valknot, and bindrunes” [1]
Ummah – “The general worldwide community of all Muslims.” [2]
Unforgiven – “Large white supremacist prison gang based in the Florida prison system. Their main symbol consists of an interlocking Iron Cross and swastika, with SS lightning bolts in the centre.” [1]
Universal Aryan Brotherhood – “White supremacist prison gang based in the Oklahoma prison system, one of several such gangs that have used ‘brotherhood’ in their title. Despite the gang's name, it has no connection to the original Aryan Brotherhood, which is based in the California and federal prison systems.” [1]
United Society of Aryan Skinheads (USAS) – “White supremacist gang active in the prisons and on the streets. Although it originated in Oregon, it is essentially based in California. USAS members primarily use one or more of three symbols: the white power fist, the Valknot, and bindrunes” [1]
V
Vinlanders Social Club (VSC) – “One of the larger hardcore racist skinhead gangs in the United States, with their strongest bases of support in Indiana and Arizona.” [1]
Violent extremism – “Promoting, supporting or committing acts which may lead to terrorism and which are aimed at defending an ideology advocating racial, national, ethnic or religious supremacy or opposing core democratic principles and values.” [30]
Violent Islamism – Also known as militant Islamism, this term is used to describe “Muslim individuals who use violent means to achieve political ends which are inspired by the ideology of radical Islam, (whose) religious duty (is) to defend Islam against Western values and free the occupation of Muslim heartland”. In fact, “for some militant Islamists, the goal of establishing a Caliphate is used as a justification for the use of violence”. [7]
Violent jihad – Related to al-jihad al-Asghar; “Armed defence of Islam against aggression. Participation in violent Jihad can take a number of forms, ranging from taking part in combat to providing logistical support.” [2]
Violent radicalisation – “Process that occurs when an individual takes the additional step of employing violence to further the views derived from cognitive radicalism.” [42]
Volksfront – “Hybrid racist skinhead gang/neo-Nazi group that started in the Pacific Northwest in the 1990s.” [1]
Volksgemeinschaft – “German term for ‘ethnic community’, literally ‘people’s community’. The term was prominently featured in Nazi propaganda as Adolf Hitler sought to create an ideal German society as a Volksgemeinschaft, a racially unified and hierarchically organised body in which individuals submitted to the will of the nation state. Contemporary German far-right extremist groups, notably the National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD), maintain that the Volksgemeinschaft is under attack and needs to be protected. Furthermore, they believe that immigrants in Germany are an affront to their community, fuelling anti-immigrant, anti-refugee and racist rhetoric.” [4]
Violent extremism – “Promoting, supporting or committing acts which may lead to terrorism and which are aimed at defending an ideology advocating racial, national, ethnic or religious supremacy or opposing core democratic principles and values.” [30]
Violent Islamism – Also known as militant Islamism, this term is used to describe “Muslim individuals who use violent means to achieve political ends which are inspired by the ideology of radical Islam, (whose) religious duty (is) to defend Islam against Western values and free the occupation of Muslim heartland”. In fact, “for some militant Islamists, the goal of establishing a Caliphate is used as a justification for the use of violence”. [7]
Violent jihad – Related to al-jihad al-Asghar; “Armed defence of Islam against aggression. Participation in violent Jihad can take a number of forms, ranging from taking part in combat to providing logistical support.” [2]
Violent radicalisation – “Process that occurs when an individual takes the additional step of employing violence to further the views derived from cognitive radicalism.” [42]
Volksfront – “Hybrid racist skinhead gang/neo-Nazi group that started in the Pacific Northwest in the 1990s.” [1]
Volksgemeinschaft – “German term for ‘ethnic community’, literally ‘people’s community’. The term was prominently featured in Nazi propaganda as Adolf Hitler sought to create an ideal German society as a Volksgemeinschaft, a racially unified and hierarchically organised body in which individuals submitted to the will of the nation state. Contemporary German far-right extremist groups, notably the National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD), maintain that the Volksgemeinschaft is under attack and needs to be protected. Furthermore, they believe that immigrants in Germany are an affront to their community, fuelling anti-immigrant, anti-refugee and racist rhetoric.” [4]
W
Wahhabism –
White Aryan Resistance (WAR; skinhead group) – “Loosely organised racist skinhead movement in the late 1980s and early 1990s centred around white supremacist Tom Metzger. Now the symbol is associated with Metzger himself or used as a general hate symbol.” [1]
White Aryan Resistance (WAR; prison gang) – “Large, Arkansas-based white supremacist prison gang, who borrowed the name from California white supremacist Tom Metzger. Their main symbol is an elaborate pyramid-shaped tattoo that contains symbols representing rank and other meanings.” [1]
White genocide – “White nationalist belief that white people, as a race, are endangered and face extinction as a result of non-white immigration and marriage between the races, a process being manipulated by Jews. (…) It is the underlying concept behind far-right, anti-immigration arguments, especially those aimed at immigrants who are not white Christians. The concept was popularised by Bob Whitaker, a former economics professor and Reagan appointee to the Office of Personnel Management, who wrote a 221-word ‘mantra’ on the subject that ended with the rallying cry: ‘Anti-racist is code word for anti-white’. (…) The concept of white genocide was often communicated online through a white supremacist saying called the Fourteen Words: ‘We must secure the existence of our people and a future for white children’.” [3]
White Knights – “Texas-based white supremacist prison gang (also active in Arizona in recent years). Their main symbol consists of a knight's helmet containing a skull. Behind the skull are two crossed swords, while the words ‘white’ and "knight" appear on "rockers" above and below the skull.” [1]
White separatism – “A developing tendency emerging from White supremacy that seeks the total separation of the races, rather than the segregation or expulsion of people of colour. White separatists generally claim to be “racialists” rather than “racists,” but almost invariably hold White supremacist views while claiming to desire racially separate nation states based on mutual respect for racial difference.” [15]
White supremacy – “Term used in various ways to describe a set of beliefs; organised White hate groups; or a system of racial oppression that benefits White people. As an ideology, it is the belief that the socially constructed “White race” is superior to other “races.” As a system, White supremacy in the U.S. is maintained when White people defend, deny, or ignore the reality of the continued systematic subordination and oppression of people of colour. White supremacy is the most powerful form of racism in the US, and it has two major forms: racism by Whites used to justify the oppression of people of colour; and the racialised construct of antisemitism in which Jews are falsely claimed to be a distinct non-White race, and are then deemed a sinister race.” [15]
Wilaya – “Arabic word meaning ‘province’. The term is used by ISIS to name the territories where the group operates around the world, such as ‘Wilayat Ninevah’ in Iraq or ‘Wilayat Khorsan’ in Afghanistan. By naming these territories as provinces, the group seeks to reinforce the narrative that it is operating as a governing caliphate.” [4]
WP – “Acronym for the common white supremacist chant ‘White Power’. In some contexts, WP may refer to ‘White Pride’ instead.” [1]
WPWW – “Common white supremacist acronym that stands for ‘White Pride World Wide’. The phrase is used as part of the logo for Stormfront, the largest white supremacist website on the Internet, which accounts for its widespread use by white supremacists.” [1]
- “Reformist, purificatory approach to Islam similar to Salafism set forth by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, an 18th century Arabian preacher which continues to be the official religious policy in Saudi Arabia and Qatar. Followers of this approach normally object to the use of this term to describe them.” [2]
- “Generic or derogatory term used by some governments to describe versions of Islam that they dislike.” [2]
White Aryan Resistance (WAR; skinhead group) – “Loosely organised racist skinhead movement in the late 1980s and early 1990s centred around white supremacist Tom Metzger. Now the symbol is associated with Metzger himself or used as a general hate symbol.” [1]
White Aryan Resistance (WAR; prison gang) – “Large, Arkansas-based white supremacist prison gang, who borrowed the name from California white supremacist Tom Metzger. Their main symbol is an elaborate pyramid-shaped tattoo that contains symbols representing rank and other meanings.” [1]
White genocide – “White nationalist belief that white people, as a race, are endangered and face extinction as a result of non-white immigration and marriage between the races, a process being manipulated by Jews. (…) It is the underlying concept behind far-right, anti-immigration arguments, especially those aimed at immigrants who are not white Christians. The concept was popularised by Bob Whitaker, a former economics professor and Reagan appointee to the Office of Personnel Management, who wrote a 221-word ‘mantra’ on the subject that ended with the rallying cry: ‘Anti-racist is code word for anti-white’. (…) The concept of white genocide was often communicated online through a white supremacist saying called the Fourteen Words: ‘We must secure the existence of our people and a future for white children’.” [3]
White Knights – “Texas-based white supremacist prison gang (also active in Arizona in recent years). Their main symbol consists of a knight's helmet containing a skull. Behind the skull are two crossed swords, while the words ‘white’ and "knight" appear on "rockers" above and below the skull.” [1]
White separatism – “A developing tendency emerging from White supremacy that seeks the total separation of the races, rather than the segregation or expulsion of people of colour. White separatists generally claim to be “racialists” rather than “racists,” but almost invariably hold White supremacist views while claiming to desire racially separate nation states based on mutual respect for racial difference.” [15]
White supremacy – “Term used in various ways to describe a set of beliefs; organised White hate groups; or a system of racial oppression that benefits White people. As an ideology, it is the belief that the socially constructed “White race” is superior to other “races.” As a system, White supremacy in the U.S. is maintained when White people defend, deny, or ignore the reality of the continued systematic subordination and oppression of people of colour. White supremacy is the most powerful form of racism in the US, and it has two major forms: racism by Whites used to justify the oppression of people of colour; and the racialised construct of antisemitism in which Jews are falsely claimed to be a distinct non-White race, and are then deemed a sinister race.” [15]
Wilaya – “Arabic word meaning ‘province’. The term is used by ISIS to name the territories where the group operates around the world, such as ‘Wilayat Ninevah’ in Iraq or ‘Wilayat Khorsan’ in Afghanistan. By naming these territories as provinces, the group seeks to reinforce the narrative that it is operating as a governing caliphate.” [4]
WP – “Acronym for the common white supremacist chant ‘White Power’. In some contexts, WP may refer to ‘White Pride’ instead.” [1]
WPWW – “Common white supremacist acronym that stands for ‘White Pride World Wide’. The phrase is used as part of the logo for Stormfront, the largest white supremacist website on the Internet, which accounts for its widespread use by white supremacists.” [1]
X
Xenophobia – “Fear of or distaste for people, ideas, or customs thought to be strange or foreign.” [15]
Y
Z
Zakat – “Annual donation or tax used for charitable or religious purposes. Extremist and terrorist organisations have often exploited the concept of zakat to solicit donations on behalf of their organisations.” [4]
ZOG – Term or expression linked to far-right extremist ideology. It “stands for ‘Zionist-Occupied Government’. These terms refer to the belief that the Jews occupy and control the government, as well as the media. The letters often appear in a circle with a slash over it. JOG for Jewish Occupied Government is a similar phrase also often used for the same purpose.” [32]
Zyklon B – “Name of the gas used to kill over a million victims, most of them Jews, in the death camps constructed by Nazi Germany during the Holocaust. Because of its association with killing Jews, Zyklon B has been adopted as a symbol by modern-day white supremacists, who often use it to make sick jokes about killing Jews.” [1]
ZOG – Term or expression linked to far-right extremist ideology. It “stands for ‘Zionist-Occupied Government’. These terms refer to the belief that the Jews occupy and control the government, as well as the media. The letters often appear in a circle with a slash over it. JOG for Jewish Occupied Government is a similar phrase also often used for the same purpose.” [32]
Zyklon B – “Name of the gas used to kill over a million victims, most of them Jews, in the death camps constructed by Nazi Germany during the Holocaust. Because of its association with killing Jews, Zyklon B has been adopted as a symbol by modern-day white supremacists, who often use it to make sick jokes about killing Jews.” [1]
Numbers
100% – Linked to far-right extremism. “This is an expression of an individual’s pure Aryan or white roots. It is common among white supremacists. It is also a statement by white supremacists on the need for a pure, white race that is uncorrupted by interracial relationships.” [32]
1-11 – “Numeric symbol used by the Aryan Knights, an Idaho-based prison gang, to identify themselves. Substituting letters for numbers, 1 and 11 mean A and K (i.e., Aryan Knights).” [1]
12 – “Numeric symbol for Aryan Brotherhood groups (as are the numbers 1 and 2 separately), especially the Aryan Brotherhood of Texas. Substituting letters for numbers, 12 equals AB (i.e., Aryan Brotherhood).” [1]
13 – “Numeric symbol for the Aryan Circle, the large Texas-based racist prison gang. Substituting letters for numbers, 1 and 3 equals A and C (i.e., Aryan Circle).” [1]
14 – Linked to far-right extremism. “This numeral represents the phrase ‘14 words’, the number of words in an expression that has become the battle cry and rallying slogan for the white supremacist movement: ‘We must secure the existence of our people and a future for white children’. This expression was coined by white supremacist David Lane while in prison serving essentially a life sentence for his role in The Order, a 1980s white supremacist terrorist group that conducted armed robberies, bombings, and assassinations. Lane died in prison in 2007.” [32]
14/23 – “Numeric symbol associated with the Southern Brotherhood, the largest white supremacist prison gang in Alabama. The 14 is a reference to the white supremacist ‘14 Words’ slogan (‘We must secure the existence of our people and a future for white children’), while the 23 refers to the ‘23 precepts’, a list of rules that Southern Brotherhood members must follow.” [1]
1488 or 14/88 –
16/23 – White supremacist numeric symbol intended to mean P/W (i.e., “Peckerwood”, an historical 19th- century African-American derogatory and racial slang against white people. [1]
18 – Linked to far-right extremism. “The first letter of the alphabet is A; the eighth letter of the alphabet is H. Thus, 1 plus 8, or 18, equals AH, an abbreviation for Adolf Hitler. Neo-Nazis use 18 in tattoos and symbols. The number is also used by Combat 18, a violent British neo-Nazi group that chose its name in honour of Adolf Hitler”. [32]
1924 – “A year of particular importance to Islamist extremists with an interest in the Caliphate (such as Hizb ut- Tahrir or successor groups to al-Muhajiroun). It is the year in which the Ottoman Caliphate was formally abolished, and which they see as the end of an era and as a sign of Western hostility to Islam.” [2]
23 – “White supremacists, primarily on the West Coast, may use a two-handed hand sign consisting of one hand showing or flashing two fingers and the other hand showing or flashing three fingers. Together, they signify the number 23, a numeric symbol for W (‘White’).” [1]
23/16 – “Numeric symbol used by white supremacists, particularly common on the West Coast. Substituting letters for numbers, the 23/16 equates to W/P or "White Power.” [1]
234 – Numeric symbol used (either in Latin or Roman numeral forms) by the New Aryan Empire, an Arkansas-based white supremacist prison gang. Substituting letters for numbers, it corresponds to NAE (i.e., New Aryan Empire 234).” [1]
28 – Linked to far-right extremism. “The number stands for the name ‘Blood & Honour’ because B is the 2nd letter of the alphabet and H is the 8th letter. Blood & Honour is an international neo-Nazi/racist skinhead group started by British white supremacist and singer Ian Stuart. It has chapters around the world.” [32]
311 – “Number used by Ku Klux Klan members to refer to the Klan. The eleventh letter of the alphabet is the letter ‘K’, thus 3 times 11 equals ‘KKK’ (i.e., Ku Klux Klan).” [1]
318 – “White supremacist numeric symbol. The 3 in the symbol is a numeric substitution for the letter C. C18 stands for Combat 18, a British white supremacist group that occasionally develops chapters in the United States. The 18 in its name stands for Adolf Hitler.” [1]
33/6 – “The number 33 is used by Ku Klux Klan adherents to signify the Ku Klux Klan: since the 11th letter of the alphabet is K, three Ks signify "KKK" or the Ku Klux Klan. Klan members will frequently follow this with the number 6, to indicate the historical "era" of the Klan they think the Klan currently is in.” [1]
38 – “Numeric symbol (used) by members of the Hammerskins, a racist skinhead group. Substituting letters for numbers, 38 stands for CH or "Crossed Hammers," a reference to the crossed hammers of the group's logo.” [1]
4/20 – Also shown as 420 or 4:20, this number is linked to far-right extremism. It stands for “the anniversary of Adolf Hitler’s birthday is also used as a tattoo by racists and neo-Nazis, to affirm their belief in the ideals of National Socialism.” [32]
43 – “Numeric symbol used by members of the racist skinhead group Supreme White Alliance (SWA). If one substitutes numbers for the letters in SWA's initials (19, 23, 1), then adds those numbers together, the total is 43.” [1]
5 – Linked to far-right extremism “This numeral represents the expression ‘5 words’, which signifies ‘I have nothing to say’. Alex Curtis, a San Diego-based white supremacist who coined the phrase, believes that white racists in the United States should use the five words to demonstrate a ‘code of silence’ and to help avoid prosecution by law enforcement.” [32]
511 – “Numeric symbol for the Oregon-based racist prison gang European Kindred. Substituting letters for numbers, the 5 and 11 equate to E and K (i.e., European Kindred).” [1]
737 – “Numeric symbol used by Public Enemy Number 1 (PENI), a California-based white supremacist gang present on California's streets and in its prisons. The numbers 737 correspond to the letters P, D, and S, on a telephone keypad; the initials PDS stand for Peni Death Squad, another name for the group.” [1]
786 – “The Arabic letter of the opening phrase of the Qur’an equals 786 in the Islamic numerology. Some Muslims – mostly in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Myanmar – use 786 as a substitute for the phrase ‘bismillah ir-rahman ir-rahim’ (‘in the name of God, the compassionate, the merciful’).” [2]
83 – “White supremacist numeric symbol standing for ‘Heil Christ’ or ‘Hail Christ’, typically used by adherents of the racist and anti-Semitic religious sect Christian Identity.” [1]
88 – Linked to far-right extremism. “The eighth letter of the alphabet is ‘H’. Eight two times signifies "HH", shorthand for the Nazi greeting, ‘Heil Hitler’. 88 is often found on hate group flyers, in both the greetings and closing comments of letters written by neo-Nazis, and in e-mail addresses.” [32]
9% – “Numeric white supremacist symbol that refers to the percentage of the world's population that is purportedly white.” [1]
1-11 – “Numeric symbol used by the Aryan Knights, an Idaho-based prison gang, to identify themselves. Substituting letters for numbers, 1 and 11 mean A and K (i.e., Aryan Knights).” [1]
12 – “Numeric symbol for Aryan Brotherhood groups (as are the numbers 1 and 2 separately), especially the Aryan Brotherhood of Texas. Substituting letters for numbers, 12 equals AB (i.e., Aryan Brotherhood).” [1]
13 – “Numeric symbol for the Aryan Circle, the large Texas-based racist prison gang. Substituting letters for numbers, 1 and 3 equals A and C (i.e., Aryan Circle).” [1]
14 – Linked to far-right extremism. “This numeral represents the phrase ‘14 words’, the number of words in an expression that has become the battle cry and rallying slogan for the white supremacist movement: ‘We must secure the existence of our people and a future for white children’. This expression was coined by white supremacist David Lane while in prison serving essentially a life sentence for his role in The Order, a 1980s white supremacist terrorist group that conducted armed robberies, bombings, and assassinations. Lane died in prison in 2007.” [32]
14/23 – “Numeric symbol associated with the Southern Brotherhood, the largest white supremacist prison gang in Alabama. The 14 is a reference to the white supremacist ‘14 Words’ slogan (‘We must secure the existence of our people and a future for white children’), while the 23 refers to the ‘23 precepts’, a list of rules that Southern Brotherhood members must follow.” [1]
1488 or 14/88 –
- Linked to far-right extremism. “Often, the two numbers are used in conjunction to indicate a belief both in the ideology of National Socialism and the validity of the ‘14 words’.” [32]
- “Combination of two common white supremacist numeric symbols: 1) 14 (shorthand for the "14 Words" slogan: “We must secure the existence of our people and a future for white children”) and 2) 88 (standing for “Heil Hitler”)”. [1]
16/23 – White supremacist numeric symbol intended to mean P/W (i.e., “Peckerwood”, an historical 19th- century African-American derogatory and racial slang against white people. [1]
18 – Linked to far-right extremism. “The first letter of the alphabet is A; the eighth letter of the alphabet is H. Thus, 1 plus 8, or 18, equals AH, an abbreviation for Adolf Hitler. Neo-Nazis use 18 in tattoos and symbols. The number is also used by Combat 18, a violent British neo-Nazi group that chose its name in honour of Adolf Hitler”. [32]
1924 – “A year of particular importance to Islamist extremists with an interest in the Caliphate (such as Hizb ut- Tahrir or successor groups to al-Muhajiroun). It is the year in which the Ottoman Caliphate was formally abolished, and which they see as the end of an era and as a sign of Western hostility to Islam.” [2]
23 – “White supremacists, primarily on the West Coast, may use a two-handed hand sign consisting of one hand showing or flashing two fingers and the other hand showing or flashing three fingers. Together, they signify the number 23, a numeric symbol for W (‘White’).” [1]
23/16 – “Numeric symbol used by white supremacists, particularly common on the West Coast. Substituting letters for numbers, the 23/16 equates to W/P or "White Power.” [1]
234 – Numeric symbol used (either in Latin or Roman numeral forms) by the New Aryan Empire, an Arkansas-based white supremacist prison gang. Substituting letters for numbers, it corresponds to NAE (i.e., New Aryan Empire 234).” [1]
28 – Linked to far-right extremism. “The number stands for the name ‘Blood & Honour’ because B is the 2nd letter of the alphabet and H is the 8th letter. Blood & Honour is an international neo-Nazi/racist skinhead group started by British white supremacist and singer Ian Stuart. It has chapters around the world.” [32]
311 – “Number used by Ku Klux Klan members to refer to the Klan. The eleventh letter of the alphabet is the letter ‘K’, thus 3 times 11 equals ‘KKK’ (i.e., Ku Klux Klan).” [1]
318 – “White supremacist numeric symbol. The 3 in the symbol is a numeric substitution for the letter C. C18 stands for Combat 18, a British white supremacist group that occasionally develops chapters in the United States. The 18 in its name stands for Adolf Hitler.” [1]
33/6 – “The number 33 is used by Ku Klux Klan adherents to signify the Ku Klux Klan: since the 11th letter of the alphabet is K, three Ks signify "KKK" or the Ku Klux Klan. Klan members will frequently follow this with the number 6, to indicate the historical "era" of the Klan they think the Klan currently is in.” [1]
38 – “Numeric symbol (used) by members of the Hammerskins, a racist skinhead group. Substituting letters for numbers, 38 stands for CH or "Crossed Hammers," a reference to the crossed hammers of the group's logo.” [1]
4/20 – Also shown as 420 or 4:20, this number is linked to far-right extremism. It stands for “the anniversary of Adolf Hitler’s birthday is also used as a tattoo by racists and neo-Nazis, to affirm their belief in the ideals of National Socialism.” [32]
43 – “Numeric symbol used by members of the racist skinhead group Supreme White Alliance (SWA). If one substitutes numbers for the letters in SWA's initials (19, 23, 1), then adds those numbers together, the total is 43.” [1]
5 – Linked to far-right extremism “This numeral represents the expression ‘5 words’, which signifies ‘I have nothing to say’. Alex Curtis, a San Diego-based white supremacist who coined the phrase, believes that white racists in the United States should use the five words to demonstrate a ‘code of silence’ and to help avoid prosecution by law enforcement.” [32]
511 – “Numeric symbol for the Oregon-based racist prison gang European Kindred. Substituting letters for numbers, the 5 and 11 equate to E and K (i.e., European Kindred).” [1]
737 – “Numeric symbol used by Public Enemy Number 1 (PENI), a California-based white supremacist gang present on California's streets and in its prisons. The numbers 737 correspond to the letters P, D, and S, on a telephone keypad; the initials PDS stand for Peni Death Squad, another name for the group.” [1]
786 – “The Arabic letter of the opening phrase of the Qur’an equals 786 in the Islamic numerology. Some Muslims – mostly in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Myanmar – use 786 as a substitute for the phrase ‘bismillah ir-rahman ir-rahim’ (‘in the name of God, the compassionate, the merciful’).” [2]
83 – “White supremacist numeric symbol standing for ‘Heil Christ’ or ‘Hail Christ’, typically used by adherents of the racist and anti-Semitic religious sect Christian Identity.” [1]
88 – Linked to far-right extremism. “The eighth letter of the alphabet is ‘H’. Eight two times signifies "HH", shorthand for the Nazi greeting, ‘Heil Hitler’. 88 is often found on hate group flyers, in both the greetings and closing comments of letters written by neo-Nazis, and in e-mail addresses.” [32]
9% – “Numeric white supremacist symbol that refers to the percentage of the world's population that is purportedly white.” [1]
References
[1] Anti-Defamation League [ADL] (2018). Hate on display: Hate symbols database. Retrieved from https://www.adl.org/education-and-resources/resource-knowledge-base/hate-symbols.
[2] Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats [CREST] (2017). Glossary: Islamic extremist material. Retrieved from https://crestresearch.ac.uk/resources/glossary-islamic-extremist-material/.
[3] Stack, L. (2017, August 15). Alt-right, alt-left, antifa: A glossary of extremist language. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/15/us/politics/alt-left-alt-right-glossary.html.
[4] Counter Extremism Project (2018). Glossary. Retrieved from https://www.counterextremism.com/glossary.
[5] Vidino L., & Brandon, J. (2012). Countering radicalization in Europe. London: International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence [ICSR].
[6] Radicalisation Awareness Network, the Working Group on Prison and Probation [RAN P&P]. Approaches to violent extremist offenders and countering radicalisation in prisons and probation. RAN P&P Practitioners’ working paper. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/networks/radicalisation_awareness_network/about-ran/ran-p-and-p/docs/ran_pp_approaches_to_violent_extremist_en.pdf.
[7] Precht, T. (2007). Homegrown terrorism and Islamist radicalisation in Europe: From conversion to terrorism - An assessment of the factors influencing violent Islamist extremism and suggestions for counter radicalisation measures. Copenhagen: Danish Ministry of Justice Research and Documentation Unit.
[8] Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force (2006). First report of the working group on radicalisation and extremism that lead to terrorism: Inventory of state programmes. Retrieved from http://www.youthpolicy.org/library/wp-content/uploads/library/2006_First_Report_Working_Group_Radicalisation_Extremism_Terrorism_Eng.pdf.
[9] European Eye on Radicalisation (2018). Glossary of Radicalization. Retrieved from https://eeradicalization.com/basic-glossary-of-radicalization/.
[10] Hamm, M. (2007). Terrorist recruitment in American correctional institutions: An exploratory study of non-traditional faith groups (Report No. 220957). Retrieved from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service website: ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/220957.pdf.
[11] Madriaza, P., & Ponsot, A. (2015). Preventing radicalization: A systematic review. Montreal: International Centre for the Prevention of Crime [ICPC].
[12] Schmid, A. (2013). Radicalisation, de-radicalisation, counter-radicalisation: A conceptual discussion and literature review. International Centre for Counter-Terrorism [ICCT] Research Paper, 4(2), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.19165/2013.1.02.
[13] United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC] (2015). Handbook on dynamic security and prison intelligence. Vienna: United Nations Office.
[14] Avazpour, K. (2009). Euskadi Ta Askatasuna: Reasons for existence. A case study in the Basque country (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from http://lnu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:482091/FULLTEXT01.
[15] Political Research Associates (2018). Glossary. Retrieved from http://www.politicalresearch.org/glossary/.
[16] Hegghammer, T. (2013). Should I stay or should I go? Explaining variation in western jihadists’ choice between domestic and foreign fighting. American Political Science Review, 107(1), 1-15.
[17] Nesser, P. (2008). How did Europe’s global jihadis obtain training for their militant causes?. Terrorism and Political Violence, 20(2), 234-256.
[18] Birt, J. (2006). Good imam, bad imam: Civic religion and national integration in Britain post-9/11. The Muslim World, 96(4), 687-705.
[19] Reich, W. (1998). The origins of terrorism: Psychologies, ideologies, theologies, states of mind. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
[20] Roy, O. (1994). The failure of political Islam. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
[21] Mandaville, P. (2007). Global political Islam. London: Routledge.
[22] Ashour, O. (2011). Post-jihadism: Libya and the global transformations of armed Islamist movements. Terrorism and Political Violence, 23(3), 377-397.
[23] Sedgwick, M. (2015). Jihadism, narrow and wide: The dangers of loose use of an important term. Perspectives on Terrorism, 9(2), 34-41.
[24] Berlet, C., & Khan, S. (2001). Response. In C. Hartman (Ed.), Challenges to equality: Poverty and race in America (p. 19). New York: Routledge.
[25] Midlarsky, M. (2011). The origins of political extremism. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
[26] Patel, F. (2011). Rethinking radicalization. New York: Brennan Center for Justice Press.
[27] U.S. Department of Justice (2004). A review of the Federal Bureau of Prisons’ selection of Muslim religious service providers. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General.
[28] Sedgwick, M. (2010). The concept of radicalisation as a source of confusion. Terrorism and Political Violence, 22(4), 479-494.
[29] Council of the European Union (2002). Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on Combating Terrorism, 2002/475/JHA.
[30] Penal Reform International [PRI] (2016). Preventing radicalisation in prisons: Developing a coordinated and effective approach. Retrieved from https://www.penalreform.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/PRI-Radicalisation-briefing-paper-V2.pdf.
[31] Innes, M., Abbott, L., Lowe, T., & Roberts, C. (2007). Hearts and minds and eyes and ears: Reducing radicalisation risks through reassurance orientated policing. Cardiff: Universities’ Police Science Institute.
[32] Greater Manchester Police Counter Terrorism Branch Prevent Team (n.d.). Extreme right-wing symbols, numbers and acronyms. Retrieved from https://www.trafford.gov.uk/residents/community/community-safety/docs/extreme-right-wing-symbols.pdf
[33] Martin, G. (2010). Understanding terrorism: Challenges, perspectives, and issues. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
[34] Obi, C., & Ukaulor, C. (2016). The moral questions on the religious basis for terrorism. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention, 5(4), 21-25.
[35] European Commission (2018). Radicalisation Awareness Network (RAN). Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/networks/radicalisation_awareness_network_en.
[36] Wiktorowicz, Q. (2005). A genealogy of radical Islam. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 28(2), 75-97.
[37] Kolig, E. (2012). Conservative Islam: A cultural anthropology. Plymouth: Lexington Books.
[38] League of Nations Convention (1937). Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism, Article 1(2).
[39] Laqueur, W. (1987). The age of terrorism (2nd Ed.). Boston: Little, Brown, & Company.
[40] Schmid, A. (1988). Political terrorism. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
[41] Hoffman, B. (2006). Inside terrorism (2nd Ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.
[42] Vidino, L., & Brandon, J. (2010). Countering radicalisation in Europe. London: The International Centre of the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence (ICSR).
[2] Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats [CREST] (2017). Glossary: Islamic extremist material. Retrieved from https://crestresearch.ac.uk/resources/glossary-islamic-extremist-material/.
[3] Stack, L. (2017, August 15). Alt-right, alt-left, antifa: A glossary of extremist language. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/15/us/politics/alt-left-alt-right-glossary.html.
[4] Counter Extremism Project (2018). Glossary. Retrieved from https://www.counterextremism.com/glossary.
[5] Vidino L., & Brandon, J. (2012). Countering radicalization in Europe. London: International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence [ICSR].
[6] Radicalisation Awareness Network, the Working Group on Prison and Probation [RAN P&P]. Approaches to violent extremist offenders and countering radicalisation in prisons and probation. RAN P&P Practitioners’ working paper. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/networks/radicalisation_awareness_network/about-ran/ran-p-and-p/docs/ran_pp_approaches_to_violent_extremist_en.pdf.
[7] Precht, T. (2007). Homegrown terrorism and Islamist radicalisation in Europe: From conversion to terrorism - An assessment of the factors influencing violent Islamist extremism and suggestions for counter radicalisation measures. Copenhagen: Danish Ministry of Justice Research and Documentation Unit.
[8] Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force (2006). First report of the working group on radicalisation and extremism that lead to terrorism: Inventory of state programmes. Retrieved from http://www.youthpolicy.org/library/wp-content/uploads/library/2006_First_Report_Working_Group_Radicalisation_Extremism_Terrorism_Eng.pdf.
[9] European Eye on Radicalisation (2018). Glossary of Radicalization. Retrieved from https://eeradicalization.com/basic-glossary-of-radicalization/.
[10] Hamm, M. (2007). Terrorist recruitment in American correctional institutions: An exploratory study of non-traditional faith groups (Report No. 220957). Retrieved from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service website: ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/220957.pdf.
[11] Madriaza, P., & Ponsot, A. (2015). Preventing radicalization: A systematic review. Montreal: International Centre for the Prevention of Crime [ICPC].
[12] Schmid, A. (2013). Radicalisation, de-radicalisation, counter-radicalisation: A conceptual discussion and literature review. International Centre for Counter-Terrorism [ICCT] Research Paper, 4(2), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.19165/2013.1.02.
[13] United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC] (2015). Handbook on dynamic security and prison intelligence. Vienna: United Nations Office.
[14] Avazpour, K. (2009). Euskadi Ta Askatasuna: Reasons for existence. A case study in the Basque country (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from http://lnu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:482091/FULLTEXT01.
[15] Political Research Associates (2018). Glossary. Retrieved from http://www.politicalresearch.org/glossary/.
[16] Hegghammer, T. (2013). Should I stay or should I go? Explaining variation in western jihadists’ choice between domestic and foreign fighting. American Political Science Review, 107(1), 1-15.
[17] Nesser, P. (2008). How did Europe’s global jihadis obtain training for their militant causes?. Terrorism and Political Violence, 20(2), 234-256.
[18] Birt, J. (2006). Good imam, bad imam: Civic religion and national integration in Britain post-9/11. The Muslim World, 96(4), 687-705.
[19] Reich, W. (1998). The origins of terrorism: Psychologies, ideologies, theologies, states of mind. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
[20] Roy, O. (1994). The failure of political Islam. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
[21] Mandaville, P. (2007). Global political Islam. London: Routledge.
[22] Ashour, O. (2011). Post-jihadism: Libya and the global transformations of armed Islamist movements. Terrorism and Political Violence, 23(3), 377-397.
[23] Sedgwick, M. (2015). Jihadism, narrow and wide: The dangers of loose use of an important term. Perspectives on Terrorism, 9(2), 34-41.
[24] Berlet, C., & Khan, S. (2001). Response. In C. Hartman (Ed.), Challenges to equality: Poverty and race in America (p. 19). New York: Routledge.
[25] Midlarsky, M. (2011). The origins of political extremism. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
[26] Patel, F. (2011). Rethinking radicalization. New York: Brennan Center for Justice Press.
[27] U.S. Department of Justice (2004). A review of the Federal Bureau of Prisons’ selection of Muslim religious service providers. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General.
[28] Sedgwick, M. (2010). The concept of radicalisation as a source of confusion. Terrorism and Political Violence, 22(4), 479-494.
[29] Council of the European Union (2002). Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on Combating Terrorism, 2002/475/JHA.
[30] Penal Reform International [PRI] (2016). Preventing radicalisation in prisons: Developing a coordinated and effective approach. Retrieved from https://www.penalreform.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/PRI-Radicalisation-briefing-paper-V2.pdf.
[31] Innes, M., Abbott, L., Lowe, T., & Roberts, C. (2007). Hearts and minds and eyes and ears: Reducing radicalisation risks through reassurance orientated policing. Cardiff: Universities’ Police Science Institute.
[32] Greater Manchester Police Counter Terrorism Branch Prevent Team (n.d.). Extreme right-wing symbols, numbers and acronyms. Retrieved from https://www.trafford.gov.uk/residents/community/community-safety/docs/extreme-right-wing-symbols.pdf
[33] Martin, G. (2010). Understanding terrorism: Challenges, perspectives, and issues. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
[34] Obi, C., & Ukaulor, C. (2016). The moral questions on the religious basis for terrorism. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention, 5(4), 21-25.
[35] European Commission (2018). Radicalisation Awareness Network (RAN). Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/networks/radicalisation_awareness_network_en.
[36] Wiktorowicz, Q. (2005). A genealogy of radical Islam. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 28(2), 75-97.
[37] Kolig, E. (2012). Conservative Islam: A cultural anthropology. Plymouth: Lexington Books.
[38] League of Nations Convention (1937). Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism, Article 1(2).
[39] Laqueur, W. (1987). The age of terrorism (2nd Ed.). Boston: Little, Brown, & Company.
[40] Schmid, A. (1988). Political terrorism. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
[41] Hoffman, B. (2006). Inside terrorism (2nd Ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.
[42] Vidino, L., & Brandon, J. (2010). Countering radicalisation in Europe. London: The International Centre of the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence (ICSR).
